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College Algebra

Algebra Fundamentals

The fundamentals of algebra include simplifying and evaluating expressions, evaluating expressions with exponents and radicals, and factoring polynomials. While this may sound complicated, what you are doing in each instance is working to write an expression in its most simplified form. Sometimes the simplified expression is the end result. At other times, you will need to evaluate the expression. At that point, you will substitute given values for the variables and follow the order of operations. By simplifying first, you will have made the expressions and resulting numbers much easier to work with.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Simplify an algebraic expression by combining like terms
Add, subtract, and multiply polynomial expressions
Factor polynomial expressions
Simplify rational expressions

• Algebra Fundamentals

Linear Equations and Inequalities

What do the following two situations have in common? How do I find the cost of a large cheese pizza with three additional ingredients? How much will a car rental cost if the company charges a daily rate plus a onetime fee for drivers younger than 25? Both situations can be solved using simple linear equations. With a few modifications, you can use many of the same basic steps to solve linear equations, linear inequalities, absolute value equations, and absolute value inequalities.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Solve various forms of linear equations
Solve linear and absolute value inequalities

• Linear Equations and Inequalities

Quadratic and Other Equations

You will need to solve many types of equations, including quadratic and higher order polynomial equations. Some equations may contain radicals or rational exponents, so your first step in solving those will be to isolate and eliminate the radical or rational exponent. No matter what type of equation you are working with, the goal is to isolate the variable to find the solution.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Solve a quadratic equation by factoring, completing the square, or the quadratic formula
Solve higher order polynomial equations by factoring
Solve equations that contain radicals and exponents

• Quadratic and Other Equations

Function Basics

A function shows a relation; every input has one unique output. For example, if you buy two lottery tickets, the cost is $2; if you buy five lottery tickets, the cost is $5. A given number of tickets only has one cost. You can tell if a set of numbers represents a function by determining if there is only one unique y value for every x value. You can also determine whether an equation is a function by solving it. The graph of a linear function is a straight line. If you determine two ordered pairs that make the function true, you can plot and connect the points to graph the function. The slope of the line tells you the rate of change.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Recognize function notation
Evaluate a function at a value or at an algebraic expression
Determine whether a given relationship is a function
Determine whether a given graph represents a function
Determine the domain and range of a function using a graph

• Function Basics

Advanced Functions

The transformation of a common function may shift, shrink, stretch, or flip the graph—it may even do all of those. As you become more familiar with transformations, you will be able to recognize which graph corresponds with which function—and all without plotting points. By following the rules of algebra, you can perform operations with functions: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. You will also explore inverse functions. If you have a function, the inverse function undoes the function. For example, if the function converts Fahrenheit temperatures to Celsius, the inverse function converts from Celsius to Fahrenheit.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Apply transformations to the graphs of common functions
Determine the domain and range of a function algebraically
Apply the rules of algebra for functions
Determine the inverse of a function Identify the graph of a function and its inverse

• Advanced Functions

Functions of Polynomials

Polynomial functions can be used to model data and make predictions and informed decisions in professions such as computer science, engineering, management, production, and statistics. Understanding the basics of quadratic and polynomial functions can help you identify and interpret the graphs of those functions. In fact, if you know what to look for in a function, you can tell a lot about the shape of its graph without having to do any factoring or manipulating.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify the graphs of various common functions, including linear functions, absolute value functions, quadratic functions, square root functions, and cubic functions
Sketch the graph of a polynomial function

• Functions of Polynomials

Polynomial and Rational Functions

You can apply what you know about the graphing and behavior of polynomial functions to rational functions. Be aware that rational functions also have asymptotes. An asymptote is a line that a graph approaches but does not intersect. Asymptotes are helpful when sketching graphs of rational functions. Solving polynomial and rational inequalities requires more steps than solving linear inequalities. These inequalities may have more than one interval that satisfies the inequality. The position function is an application that models a free-falling object. You can find the height of an object at different time intervals. Variation models are also used to model real-life examples.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Sketch the graph of a rational function
Solve a polynomial or rational inequality
Solve practical problems through application of linear equations solutions

• Polynomial and Rational Functions

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Exponential and logarithmic functions are inverse operations. You can apply what you know about graphing basic functions and translations to exponential and logarithmic functions. In addition, rules are available that will simplify condensing and expanding logarithms. These types of functions have many applications, including calculating compound interest.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions
Explain the inverse relationship of exponential and logarithmic functions
Solve a logarithmic equation

• Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Exponential and Logarithmic Equations and Modeling

Since exponential and logarithmic functions are inverse operations, you can use logarithms to solve exponential equations and to solve logarithms in exponential form. Exponential growth and decay models are used to predict values as they change rapidly, or exponentially, over time.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Solve an exponential equation
Determine a model for data using exponential and logarithmic functions.

• Exponential and Logarithmic Equations and Modeling

Systems of Equations

A system of linear equations in two variables must have two linear equations, and a system in three variables must have three linear equations to have a unique solution. The solution is true for all equations in the system. A system of linear equations can have exactly one solution, no solution, or an infinite number of solutions. You can graph a system of linear inequalities to find where the solutions overlap. The solution has to be true for all inequalities in the system.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Solve a system of linear equations in two or more variables
Solve a system of linear equations in two or more variables
Solve a system of linear inequalities graphically

• Systems of Equations

Matrices

Matrices have many practical applications, from economics to electronic circuitry. You can also use matrices to rewrite a linear system of equations. By using matrices, you are freed from having to copy the variables from step to step. Matrices also greatly simplify finding solutions for systems with three or more equations.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Solve a system of linear equations using matrices

• Matrices

Series and Sequences

Series and sequences are not just math for math's sake. Quite a few professions incorporate series and sequences into their planning and decision-making processes. Some examples are budget analysts, financial managers, software engineers, and even agricultural managers. Why are series and sequences so important? They give you greater access to numbers on a larger scale. They allow you to project based on the patterns and behavior of a subset of numbers. For example, given the first number in a series and the pattern between numbers, you can determine any term in the sequence or any partial sum.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Determine the terms of a sequence
Determine the sum of a series
Determine the terms of a sequence
Determine the sum of a series
Justify statements about sequences and series using mathematical induction
Expand binomials using the binomial theorem
Apply the fundamental counting principle

• Series and Sequences

Statistics

Introduction To Statistics – Definitions/ Terminology

Statistics are organized data that provide information. The uses for statistics are endless. Perhaps, a survey found that four out of five doctors recommend getting a second opinion before having surgery. Is it likely that all doctors were surveyed? No, it's more reasonable that a smaller group of doctors gave their recommendation. Then researchers applied the results to the larger doctor population. Accuracy is important when working with data and statistics. A common mathematical error could change the data and result in incorrect conclusions.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define the fundamental terms used in statistics
Solve math problems using correct order of operations, fractions, and rounding
Define variables and measurement scales
Describe experimental design

• Introduction To Statistics – Definitions/ Terminology

Descriptive Statistics – Part 1

Descriptive statistics describe the information in the data set. Once collected, data need to be organized so that they can be analyzed. You can organize data by creating a table that shows how spread out or how similar the data are, or you may want to represent the data visually by using a graph.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Evaluate various data display methods
Define frequency distribution
Use frequency distributions to answer questions about the data
Graph paired data sets using scatter plots
Use graphs to describe data

• Descriptive Statistics – Part 1

Descriptive Statistics – Part 2

Different measures can help you better understand the data you are working with. Some measures can help you find the typical value in a set, such as the mean, median, or mode. Other measures give you an idea of the range and spread of the data. Quartiles, on the other hand, divide an ordered set of data into four approximately equal parts, helping you tell where values are positioned in relation to other values within the data set.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define terms related to measures of variability
Calculate the measures of central tendency and the measures of variability and interpret their meaning
Calculate the first, second, and third quartiles, and calculate the interquartile range for a given data set
Use the derived descriptive statistics to make accurate statements about the data set

• Descriptive Statistics – Part 2

Probability

Probability is the likelihood that an event will happen. You can calculate probability if you know the number of outcomes of an event and the total number of possible outcomes. If you buy a raffle ticket and only 500 total tickets are sold, the probability of your ticket being selected is 1 in 500. If you buy five tickets, you increase the probability of having the winning ticket.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain basic terms and concepts in probability
Compute probability outcomes
Distinguish between independent and dependent events
Compute probability outcomes

• Probability

Normal Distributions and Standard Scores

You may have heard the expression "graded on a bell curve" before. A bell curve, or normal curve, shows the normal distribution of a set of data. Most scores cluster around the mean, and half the data fall above the mean and half below the mean. Only a few scores will be extremely high or extremely low. Normal curves are used in education, scientific fields, and even for employee evaluations.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Know the characteristics of a normal curve and a standardized normal curve
Compute z-scores using raw data
Calculate probabilities using the z-table and z-scores

• Normal Distributions and Standard Scores

Confidence Intervals

When using data collected from a sample population, you want to have a degree of confidence in the inferences that you make about the population as a whole. In statistics, you can calculate confidence intervals to minimize any sampling errors.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Understand and apply the Central Limit Theorem to make inferences about the population
Explain the basic terms in constructing confidence intervals
Construct a confidence interval for a population mean using normal distribution and t-distribution

• Confidence Intervals

Hypothesis Testing With One Sample

Inferential statistics rely on data collected from a sample of a larger population. Hypothesis testing is used to determine if certain claims can be made about the population in general. When working with inferential statistics, errors are always possible. Minimizing the chance for error will result in more reliable conclusions about the population.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define the basic terms used in hypothesis testing
Identify type I and type II errors of a hypothesis
Conduct a t-test for one sample hypothesis testing
Write null and research hypotheses, and determine if the research hypothesis is one-tailed or two-tailed

• Hypothesis Testing With One Sample

Hypothesis Testing With Two Samples

Hypothesis testing with two samples is similar to hypothesis testing with one sample in that you still need a null hypothesis and a research hypothesis and you still perform t-tests. However, two samples can be either independent or dependent, and each case has a different formula. Remember, the whole point of hypothesis testing is to determine whether cause exists to reject the null hypothesis or fail to reject the null hypothesis.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Determine whether two samples are independent or dependent
Conduct a two-sample t-test for difference between two population means using independent samples and interpret the results
Conduct a two-sample t-test for dependent samples to test mean difference for a population of paired data and interpret the results
Identify and write null and research hypotheses and know how to test them statistically

• Hypothesis Testing With Two Samples

Hypothesis Testing For Three Or More Groups

Hypothesis testing for three or more groups is more involved than t-tests for two sample groups. You use an analysis of variance test to determine if the mean differences among sample groups are significant.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Discuss and interpret the F distribution Use one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for hypothesis testing
Calculate and interpret F
Use one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for hypothesis testing Calculate and interpret F
Determine when Tukey's HSD is to be used
Perform the calculations necessary to calculate and interpret Q

• Hypothesis Testing For Three Or More Groups

Correlation and Regression

A correlation may exist between two variables that are paired in some way. A correlation is a relationship that exists between two variables. A positive correlation might exist between the number of cars on a highway at a particular time and the number of traffic jams. As the number of cars increases, the number of traffic jams increases. On the other hand, a negative correlation might exist between the number of law enforcement officers patrolling a stretch of highway and the number of people who are speeding. As the number of officers increases, the number of people speeding decreases. You can determine whether a correlation is strong or weak or whether one exists at all. You can also use correlations to predict a value given another value.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Interpret the strength of a linear association between two variables in a scatter plot
Calculate and interpret the correlation coefficient for a given data set
Calculate and interpret the coefficient of determination for a given data set
Construct a regression line for given data
Use a regression equation for prediction of a population parameter
Find and use the standard error of the estimate for a regression line

• Correlation and Regression

Chi-Square Test of Independence

Different types of data may require different analysis techniques. You would not use the same technique when studying the relationship between age and reaction time as you would when studying the relationship between gender and car model preference.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Discuss how to use the chi-square distribution
Calculate and interpret chi-square
Identify situations in which the chi-square test of independence would be used

• Chi-Square Test of Independence

Using Excel To Perform Statistical Tests

Perhaps one of the most daunting tasks when working with statistics is the prospect of performing calculations for large sets of data. Fortunately, Excel includes a Data Analysis Pack that greatly simplifies performing calculations, such as finding z-scores and running t-tests. This resource provides instruction for users to: Enter data into Excel Use the functions of Excel Use Excel to calculate and interpret means, standard deviations, and z-Scores Enter data into Excel Use the functions of Excel Use Excel to calculate and interpret t, F, and r Enter data into Excel Use the functions of Excel Use Excel to calculate a regression equation

• Using Excel To Perform Statistical Tests

Anatomy & Physiology

Introduction To Body Structure and Organization

Interest in the anatomy and physiology of the human body sparked ancient Egyptians to record observations made during medical treatments and mummification practices as far back as 300 B.C.E. Although religious and cultural practices throughout the ages impeded much research, many historical understandings were surprisingly correct. However, the fundamental aspects of life are more extraordinary than the ancients ever observed. The cellular nature of life and the organization of cells into various levels of complexity drive the interactivity of human anatomy and physiology. Understanding the intricacies of the human body requires a standardized vocabulary that enables medical professionals all over the world to communicate accurately and efficiently.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Outline the levels of organization of the body, including the body systems
Define homeostasis and its importance to the human body
Identify the structures and functions of the organelles of a typical human cell
Describe body planes, cavities, regions, and directional terms

• Introduction To Body Structure and Organization

The Integumentary System

The word integument comes from the Latin word tegere, meaning “to cover.” And cover it does. The largest organ in the human body—the skin—stretches out over the approximate 2 m2 of an adult body's surface area. This mass of dead and living cells composes almost 4 kg of the body's mass. The integumentary system comprises more than just skin. Hair, nails, and glands are part of it too. As a whole, the integumentary system keeps pathogens and other invaders out, while working with other organ systems to maintain optimal body temperature. Glands secrete sweat, which cools the skin, and sebum, which lubricates its surface. Nervous system receptors in the skin transmit messages of pain, pressure, touch, and temperature. These examples are just part of the functions, anatomy, and physiology of the integumentary system.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain the functions of the skin, including its contribution to homeostasis
Identify the anatomical structures of the skin
Explain the function of the anatomical structures of the skin
Describe selected integumentary system diseases and disorders
Describe issues and changes related to the integumentary system at different points in the life span

• The Integumentary System

The Skeletal System

Skyscrapers are feats of modern engineering. The load of all the building materials rests on a foundation of concrete. A framework of steel girders supports concrete floors and provides connecting points for masses of wall materials. But these contemporary designs of structure and strength pale in comparison to the bones of the human skeleton. The load of the upright human body rests on 52 bones in the feet. The remaining 154 bones provide connecting points for muscles and protection for the delicate tissues of the brain, spinal cord, and other organs. The structure, function, and development of the body's internal framework put the modern skyscraper to shame.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the organization of the skeletal system
Explain the functions of bone, including its contribution to homeostasis
Identify the anatomical structures of the skeletal system, including the major bones of the body
Describe selected skeletal system diseases and disorders
Describe issues and changes related to the skeletal system at different points in the life span

• The Skeletal System

The Muscular System

Run several blocks to catch a bus or carry five bags of groceries up three flights of stairs and you'll feel how hard your muscles are working. But that's not the only time they are in action. In fact, your muscles are moving—contracting and relaxing—all the time, even when you sleep. The muscles in the human body do not just win body-building competitions, but they enable us to eat, breathe, and stand up against gravity.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe how the muscular system contributes to homeostasis of the body
Identify the anatomical structures of the muscular system, including the major muscles of the body
Explain the basic concept of muscle contraction
Describe selected muscular system diseases and disorders
Describe issues and changes related to the muscular system at different points in the life span

• The Muscular System

The Nervous System and Special Senses

In the time it takes you to read this sentence, countless nerve impulses have raced through your brain, registering what you are reading. And if you accidentally poke your finger on a staple while you're reading, those resulting nerve impulses don't even make it to your brain! Your hand just jerks away in a protective reflex. The complexity of the nervous system is astounding. The nervous system is the ultimate master of multitasking. It processes and interprets multiple stimuli simultaneously to control the heart, diaphragm, and other life-sustaining organs. Because the nervous system controls so many aspects of the body, damage and degenerative disorders of the brain and spinal cord result in serious impairments to bodily functions.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the organization of the nervous system
Explain how the nervous system contributes to the homeostasis of the body
Identify the anatomical structures of the nervous system and special senses and their functions
Explain how an electrical impulse is conducted through a nerve
Describe selected nervous system and special senses diseases and disorders
Describe issues and changes related to the nervous system and special senses at different points in the life span

• The Nervous System and Special Senses

The Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system is made up of your heart, your blood, and your blood vessels. The cardiovascular system is the body's circulatory system, so called because of its function to circulate oxygenated blood throughout the body, recycle oxygen-depleted blood for reuse, and remove waste products for eventual elimination. Despite being only about the size of your clenched fist, your heart averages 70 beats per minute and beats roughly 30 million times per year. The beats push blood throughout your body, which carries nutrients to every cell and then carries the waste products away for elimination. Without nutrients, cells cannot survive. Understanding the anatomy and physiology of the cardiovascular system, including some of the common diseases and disorders, will help you in pursuing a medical career and in maintaining a healthy lifestyle.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain the cardiac cycle, including how the cardiovascular system contributes to the homeostasis of the body
Identify the anatomical structures of the cardiovascular system
Explain how blood flows through the heart, lungs, and body
Describe the electrical conduction system of the heart
Explain how blood pressure is measured
Describe the different types of blood vessels and their function
Describe the composition and functions of blood
Describe selected cardiovascular system diseases and disorders
Describe issues and changes related to the cardiovascular system at different points in the life span

• The Cardiovascular System

The Immune System

The immune system is a set of specialized cells, tissues, organs, and processes that protect you from infection and disease. Pathogens are the intruders that cause disease and they can be bacteria, fungi, other microbes, or even your own cells! Cancer and other autoimmune disorders result from attacks by the body's own cells. Your skin is the first barrier against pathogens because it blocks the entry of foreign bodies. The skin is a very important first line of defense because researchers have shown that there are over 180 different kinds of bacteria found living on the skin. So, you can imagine that a cut in the skin is like the breech of a fortress, giving pathogens a direct path into the body. If pathogens do get through the skin's barrier, specialized cells spring into action to isolate and destroy the invaders. As with most systems, a well-functioning immune system allows the body to maintain homeostasis. When the immune system malfunctions and becomes overwhelmed with invaders, diseases take hold and eventually death can occur.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify the anatomical structures of the immune system
Explain how the immune system contributes to the homeostasis of the body
Describe how immunity works
Describe selected immune system diseases and disorders
Describe issues and changes related to the immune system at different points in the life span

• The Immune System

The Respiratory System

Without the continuous supply of oxygen, the trillions of cells in our body would be unable to carry out their vital functions. The cardiovascular and respiratory systems share responsibility for supplying the body with oxygen and eliminating carbon dioxide. The lungs, along with the other organs of the respiratory system, manage the gas exchange that occurs between the blood and the external environment. Respiratory gases are moved by blood between the lungs and cells, and the cardiovascular system keeps that blood flowing throughout the body. If either system fails, cells begin to die within minutes from oxygen starvation and the accumulation of carbon dioxide.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify the anatomical structures of the respiratory system and their functions
Explain how the respiratory system contributes to the homeostasis of the body
Explain the mechanics of breathing
Explain internal and external respiration
Describe selected respiratory system diseases and disorders
Describe issues and changes related to the respiratory system at different points in the life span

• The Respiratory System

The Digestive System

Eating fuels the body. Ingesting food starts the process of breaking food down into its usable components. Digestion consists of the chemical and physical processes that begin in the mouth and occur progressively as food moves through the organs of the digestive system. Chemical catalysts, called enzymes, play an important role in these processes: they enable the chemical reactions of digestion to proceed much more quickly and efficiently than normal. Organs, such as the stomach, do their part by churning the digestive mass to break it down mechanically. Just as it takes electrical energy to produce the light energy that comes from a light bulb, your body needs energy to drive the processes that supply cells with energy in a form that they can use.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify the anatomical structures of the digestive system and their functions
Explain how the digestive system contributes to the homeostasis of the body
Explain the physiology of digestion through the system
Describe selected digestive system diseases and disorders
Describe issues and changes related to the digestive system at different points in the life span

• The Digestive System

The Urinary System

When labor strikes affect garbage pickup in large cities, huge trash piles cause odors, provide breeding grounds for harmful microbes, and ultimately cause the spread of disease. In 1981, a 17-day strike in New York City caused garbage to pile up, but the stench was limited because the strike occurred in January. Imagine the situation in , during a yearlong strike in 2008. No city can maintain the health of its inhabitants without ensuring that wastes do not “pile up.” Just as the body needs to take in water, the elimination of waste is essential to life. How does the body produce wastes and eliminate them? The urinary system and other organs of the excretory system play a critical role in the waste management process.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify the anatomical structures of the urinary system and their functions
Explain how the urinary system contributes to the homeostasis of the body
Describe the composition of urine
Explain the physiology of the urinary system
Describe selected urinary system diseases and disorders
Describe issues and changes related to the urinary system at different points in the life span

• The Urinary System

The Endocrine System

A stressed mother screams at her kids. A teenage boy stomps out of the house. You feel angry and upset over nothing. Are these different emotional situations the result of hormones? Hormones can be responsible for mood swings or other behaviors that seem abnormal, but without hormones, the body could not maintain homeostasis. The class of chemicals called hormones is not limited to those involved in the reproductive system. Hormones are secreted by glands throughout the body, and they target organs that are responsible for growth, balanced blood sugar, and calcium levels, among other functions related to homeostasis.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain how the endocrine system contributes to the homeostasis of the body
Identify the anatomical structures of the endocrine system and their functions
Describe selected endocrine system diseases and disorders
Describe issues and changes related to the endocrine system at different points in the life span

• The Endocrine System

The Reproductive Systems

The development of a single embryo into the cellular complexity of a living human being is an amazing process. The reproductive systems of the male and female species are responsible for this process. While most of our organ systems work continuously to maintain our health, the reproductive system functions differently. It appears to “slumber” until puberty, when it suddenly switches on. At that time, the body is physiologically able to mate and carry on the species.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify the anatomical structures of the male and female reproductive systems
Describe selected male and female reproductive system diseases and disorders
Describe issues and changes related to the reproductive system at different points in the life span
Explain how the reproductive system contributes to the homeostasis of the body
Explain the menstrual cycle
Explain the physiology of reproduction

• The Reproductive Systems

Developmental English

Introduction To The Writing Process and Strategies To Improve Reading Skills

If you have ever watched the news, you know that people come from all walks of life with different cultures, backgrounds, and education. However, when you hear people speak, whether you realize it or not, you are drawing conclusions about them. Their communication skills relate to your perceptions of their education, competence, and credibility. People tend to place more trust in effective communicators, and a positive correlation exists between people who read a lot and their level of articulation. Reading allows you to live vicariously through a character or learn about new ideas while improving your vocabulary, understanding, and critical-thinking skills. Implementing the strategies of previewing, finding the main idea, annotating the text, and understanding difficult words will improve your reading, and ultimately, your communication.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Practice exploring techniques
Describe the purpose and key elements for each step of the writing process
State why and how good reading and writing skills can benefit you in your life and career
Practice developing techniques Identify the four steps of the writing process
Identify and describe strategies to improve your reading skills
Apply the steps of the writing process to write a paragraph

• Introduction To The Writing Process and Strategies To Improve Reading Skills

Review of Sentences and Paragraphs

Everyone uses words to build sentences. Yet many people do not have a firm understanding of how sentences are constructed. Once you understand the structure and pattern of sentences, you will not need to memorize hundreds of tricky grammar rules. Simple, compound, and complex sentences form the basis for all writing. Sentences can always be classified into one of the three types.

Simple sentences consist of a subject, a verb, and prepositional phrases. Compound sentences consist of two simple sentences, or independent clauses, separated by a comma and a coordinating conjunction or separated by a semicolon. Complex sentences are the most challenging to understand. They contain both a dependent clause and an independent clause. They may also include relative clauses that begin with a pronoun such as that, which, where, or whom. Even though the ideas in complex sentences are closely related, the clauses are separated by a comma. Understanding sentence structure will help you build logical, purposeful, and engaging sentences for any audience.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify subjects, verbs, and prepositional phrases in writings
Recognize comma splices, run-ons, and fragments in writing samples
Classify simple, compound, and complex sentences
Identify and describe the key elements of a paragraph
Apply the steps of the writing process to write a paragraph

• Review of Sentences and Paragraphs

Paragraph Patterns: The Illustration Paragraph

In today's culture, written communication is used more than ever before. Emails, blogs, and text messages have literally changed the way people exchange information, share stories, and stay in touch. Although you may communicate informally with friends and family, your writing must follow standard conventions in education and workplace environments. Effective writers know that eliminating fragments, run-on sentences, and usage errors will help readers understand a message more clearly. Effective writers also know that the purpose of their writing is to inform, persuade, or entertain. They select a paragraph type that will ensure their purpose is met. For example, a story needs a narrative paragraph type, a complaint letter requires an illustrative paragraph type, and a technical manual calls for a process paragraph type.

Regardless of the type of paragraph used to suit a purpose, a paragraph will always have the same structure. It will always include a topic sentence with a controlling idea, supporting details, and a concluding sentence.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Differentiate between the nine types of paragraph patterns and recognize each paragraph pattern type in writing samples
Define paragraph pattern
List the guidelines for writing an illustration paragraph Write a grammatically correct illustration paragraph

• Paragraph Patterns: The Illustration Paragraph

Review of Verbs: The Description Paragraph

Throughout schooling, most students are told that verbs show action. That may be the case in many instances but not always. Verbs such as run, jump, think, and vote show direct physical or mental action. However, verbs also express states of being, and forms of the verb "to be," such as is, are, was, were, be, being, and been, link the subject and predicate. When communicating, you need to make sure the subject and the verb agree. With few exceptions, singular subjects have singular verbs and plural subjects have plural verbs. In addition, indefinite pronouns, such as anyone or everybody, and plural subjects joined with or or nor must be examined carefully to ensure that the verb agrees with the singular, plural, or compound subject.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

List the guidelines for writing a description paragraph
Discriminate between correct and incorrect use of verbs in writing samples
Differentiate between regular and irregular verbs
Recognize proper and improper examples of subject-verb agreement
Write a grammatically correct description paragraph

• Review of Verbs: The Description Paragraph

Review of Nouns: The Process Paragraph

Nouns go far beyond naming people, places, and things as you were taught in elementary school. Nouns can be tangible, intangible, singular, plural, common, proper, count, or noncount. Yet for all their complexity, nouns are deceptively simple to categorize. Tangible, or concrete, nouns are any nouns you can see or touch. Intangible, or abstract, nouns are things you know are there but that you cannot see or touch, such as an idea, frustration, courage, and justice. Common nouns, such as park, man, and grandma, are general and are not capitalized. Proper nouns, such as FreedomHillPark, Pastor Burke, and Grandma Ellis, are specific and are capitalized. Singular nouns tell about one, while plural nouns tell about more than one.

Recognizing correct noun and preposition usage within your writing will help you write more effectively when composing your process paragraph.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Write a grammatically correct process paragraph
List the guidelines for writing a process paragraph
Differentiate between common and proper nouns
Discriminate between correct and incorrect use of nouns and capitalization in writing samples

• Review of Nouns: The Process Paragraph

Review of Pronouns: The Narrative Paragraph

Narratives are the stories you hear or read, including fairy tales, memoirs, biographies, screenplays, and speeches. However, narratives aren't used only for entertainment and persuasion. At work, you may find yourself writing an accident report, a detailed account of a customer service incident, or even a recommendation letter. To be an example of strong writing, each narrative must make a point and be grammatically correct.

Narratives must also be free of sexist, vague, and ambiguous language. When crafting an effective narrative paragraph, understanding pronoun types and common errors in usage is important so you can recognize and avoid them. You should also recall that a narrative paragraph includes a topic sentence, relevant and supporting details, and a conclusion. Narrowing your topic, making a clear point, creating a paragraph plan, and revising and editing critically will ensure the effectiveness and clarity of your narrative paragraph.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Apply revising and editing techniques to writing samples and prior writing assignments
Write a grammatically correct narrative paragraph
List the guidelines for writing a narrative paragraph
Identify guidelines for using pronouns
Differentiate between the types of pronouns
Discriminate between incorrect and correct usage of pronouns in writing samples

• Review of Pronouns: The Narrative Paragraph

Review of Modifiers: The Classification Paragraph

Nine times out of 10, when a sentence sounds funny and doesn't make sense, the problem is a misplaced or dangling modifier. Modifiers, when used correctly, enhance nouns and make them come alive for the reader. To make your writing strong and clear, you should be able to identify and eliminate modifier errors, including prepositional phrase modifiers, past participle modifiers, limiting modifiers, and dangling modifiers.

After learning the correct use of modifiers, you can then apply that knowledge when writing a classification paragraph. Classification paragraphs explain a concept in clear, distinct categories. For example, to determine how to teach swimming at the community pool, you might categorize student needs by skill level. If you work at a snack company, you might write a blog about nutritional snack choices and categorize them by salty or sweet tastes. To write an effective classification paragraph, it's important to create a classification chart that lists the categories of your subject and the points you would like to make.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Write a grammatically correct classification paragraph
List the guidelines for writing a classification paragraph
Recognize the various types of modifiers in writing samples
Recognize dangling and misplaced modifiers in writing samples

• Review of Modifiers: The Classification Paragraph

Revising and Editing: The Comparison and Contrast Paragraph

When people read information, whether on a website or in a work email, the writer's credibility is at stake. Readers expect that competent sources will have few, if any, spelling, grammar, usage, or punctuation errors. When you write your comparison-and-contrast paragraph, you can apply writing and editing strategies to ensure your work is as close to error free as possible. When revising and editing, writers use five steps. They revise for unity, coherence, adequate support, and style, and then they edit for grammar, spelling, punctuation, and mechanics. Writers use techniques such as reading aloud, revising from the end to the beginning, and putting writing aside for a few days to become better at the revising and editing process.

To write an effective comparison-and-contrast paragraph, you can use a paragraph plan. Create a topic sentence that reveals the subject being compared and contrasted and the controlling idea. Then, determine if the point-by-point or topic-by-topic pattern works best with your subject. After writing your paragraph, be sure to spend time revising and editing it.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Apply revising and editing techniques to writing samples and prior writing assignments
List the guidelines for writing a comparison and contrast paragraph
State the purpose and process for revising and editing
Write a grammatically correct comparison and contrast paragraph

• Revising and Editing: The Comparison and Contrast Paragraph

Review of Punctuation: The Cause-and-Effect Paragraph

Punctuation puts the polish on your writing. Along with accurate spelling, grammar, and mechanics, punctuation is essential for making a positive, credible impression on readers. Many writers, unsure of punctuation rules, don't take the time to understand the guidelines that govern commas, apostrophes, and quotation marks. It may be daunting to try to memorize all the rules. You are fortunate to have technology-enhanced resources available to help you find and apply punctuation rules to your writing—including cause-and-effect paragraphs.

Cause-and-effect paragraphs make an assertion about something that happened or why it happened. The writer then supports his or her assertion with valid, logical, and evidence-based details. Writers use the cause-and-effect paragraph to focus on causes, effects, or both. Writers craft a topic sentence that introduces the assertion and explains whether the piece will focus on causes, effects, or both. The assertion must be supported with facts that can be proven, not opinions. After writing the cause-and-effect paragraph, return to the paper to revise and edit, paying close attention to any oversimplifications or hasty generalizations that might not be true.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

List the guidelines for writing a cause and effect paragraph Write a grammatically correct cause and effect paragraph
Discriminate between proper and improper use of apostrophes and quotation marks in writing samples
Discriminate between proper and improper use of commas and end marks in writing samples

• Review of Punctuation: The Cause-and-Effect Paragraph

Review of Spelling and Diction: The Definition Paragraph

Although you may not be a big fan of spelling rules yourself, for your writing to be perceived as professional and credible, you must strive to make it as error free as possible and avoid slang and clichés. You can use spelling tricks for some words, but since the English language has many, many exceptions to the rules, the best way to spell correctly is to use a dictionary. All those times your teacher said, "Look it up," he or she was right. Fortunately, you have the choice of a hard-copy dictionary or an online dictionary to find the words in question. Also, spell checkers are available to proof your work.

However, spell-check programs should be used with caution because they can't distinguish some homophones, they autocorrect erroneously, and they often miss grammatical errors that reading aloud would easily catch. You need to apply these guidelines when writing your definition paragraph and in other communications. A well-written definition paragraph explains an abstract concept. It uses a synonym, category, or negation to introduce and define the term in the topic sentence. Details show readers examples in emphatic order and leave a lasting impression and a clear understanding of the concept.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

List the guidelines for writing a definition paragraph
Memorize commonly misspelled words
Recognize a cliche and describe how to avoid its use Write a grammatically correct definition paragraph

• Review of Spelling and Diction: The Definition Paragraph

Essays and Essay Patterns

In business and academics, people often have more to say than they would like. In most cases, what people have to say must be told in an essay format. Essays form the basis of nearly every work and academic communication you will encounter. In your career, you might read or write reports, policies, regulations, and letters. In school, you will read to understand and write papers to evaluate information and demonstrate your knowledge. All of these communications are based on an essay pattern such as comparison and contrast, narration, process, or cause and effect.

Since you cannot escape from the format of essays, it will be helpful to embrace them and master their elements. Essays are written much the same as paragraphs. They follow the same writing process: explore, develop, revise, and edit. However, essays are longer than paragraphs and must include an introductory paragraph with a thesis statement, several body paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph. To write an effective essay, you can develop a plan, write a thesis statement, write your draft, and then revise and edit your work. No one ever said writing was easy, but it will be more so if you understand the types of essays, know which elements to include in an essay, and follow a writing plan.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Differentiate among the nine types of essay patterns
Identify and describe the key elements of an essay
Write a grammatically correct essay

• Essays and Essay Patterns

Final Quiz and Course Project

A portfolio shows off a person's best work, and in today's world, a portfolio is as unique as the person presenting it. For an artist, it may be poster-sized works in a leather case. For a photographer, it may be organized photo albums. For a web developer, it may be an online link to a gallery of websites. In your case, a portfolio is a compilation of all your writings. Many writers use a three-ring binder to organize their work. Binders may be purchased with clear covers so you can print and insert a custom cover. Much like a book, a portfolio has a title page with your name, a table-of-contents page that lists each piece, and a separate introduction page for each piece followed by the piece of writing. Your portfolio should be neat, orderly, and logical. It represents your growth and accomplishments as a writer, but in no way should it feel like the end of your writing journey—instead, it should feel like the beginning.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Complete and submit your finished writing portfolio

• Final Quiz and Course Project

Developmental Reading

Vocabulary In Context

Every amazing story begins with one word. As a matter of fact, even everyday, run-of-the-mill stories must begin with a single word. The simple fact is words are the basic element of all you hear and read, whether that is a story posted online by a friend or the lecture notes your professor passed out to the class. To become better able to understand what you read, then, learning a few key strategies for deciphering unfamiliar words is necessary. This resource provides you with the strategies you need to understand word parts and with context clues to help you understand new and unfamiliar words. With these strategies, you can greatly enhance your ability to define the words that you encounter in your academic and everyday reading.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Determine the meaning of words using example clues in a sentence
Determine the meaning of words in a sentence using their prefix and suffix clues
Identify the meaning of words using root clues in a sentence
Determine the meaning of words using synonym and antonym clues in a sentence

• Vocabulary In Context

Understanding Topics

As an effective reader, you will have to read more carefully than you might have done in the past. This is a challenge that many college students face. In everyday life, most of what you read is done superficially — you only glance at it and take in a general sense of it. Academic reading, on the other hand, is most similar to how you might watch a detective or mystery show. As you watch, you notice details, look for connections between events, and try to figure out the big picture. Thus, to become a more effective reader, especially for academic purposes, you'll learn a number of strategies to support you in fully comprehending the material you encounter. These comprehension strategies will guide you through the process of having more productive and meaningful reading experiences.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Determine the implied topic in a paragraph
Determine the stated main idea in a paragraph
Distinguish between general and specific items in a word group
Identify the stated or implied main idea from a word group

• Understanding Topics

Main Ideas

As a college reader, you have an unending task before you. Perhaps more than at any other time in your life, you will be expected to read and understand vast amounts of information. The way this reading material is written could be as varied as the resources you will take.

How, then, do you prepare yourself for success? One way to prepare is by fortifying yourself with strategies that enable you to approach any text with the ability to know that understanding and learning is possible. The comprehension strategies you've been developing so far will be key to that success and will be expanded in this resource. As a college student, you will encounter variations in reading material. If only each text was written with an easily defined, easily followed pattern, your collegiate work might be easier. Because this is not the case, you need to learn ways to approach the varied reading material that you will encounter in the college classroom.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify the implied main idea in multiple paragraphs
Identify the implied main idea in a paragraph
Identify the implied topic in a paragraph

• Main Ideas

Major and Minor Supporting Characters

Enjoying a movie is a common pastime that many people have experienced in their lives. While most people simply enjoy the overall experience of a good movie, a movie critic or reviewer has a different take on what he or she watches. Reviewers or critics watch a movie and notice a number of particular elements of the movie. Movie reviewers analyze the movie to understand and to share with others how well the various aspects of the movie work together. Some of the things a reviewer might examine are the plot, the actors, the set or location, and the movie's message or theme. A reviewer is examining the contributing aspects of a movie to better say how successful the movie, as a whole, is expressing its message.

Similarly, a college reader must learn to approach reading material in a like manner. College readers are not reading for enjoyment primarily; they are reading to understand. So, college readers must examine the text and analyze how the various parts work together to communicate the author's message. To accomplish this task, you must study the main ideas and supporting ideas.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Determine the major and minor details in a paragraph
Explain the various types of major and minor details in a paragraph
Identify the minor supporting details of a paragraph or paragraphs
Identify the major supporting details of a paragraph or paragraph

• Major and Minor Supporting Characters

Understanding Relationships

As a college student, you will find that the reading material you encounter is increasingly longer and more complex than what you may have encountered previously. Textbooks, academic journals, and research materials require you to process and retain vast amounts of information. Therefore, it is important for you to develop strategies to help manage the flow of information you read. This resource, which focuses on tactics to classify and understand ideas, helps you manage and comprehend the complexities of academic reading.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Determine the relationship among two or more compound or complex sentences
Determine the relationship among two or more simple sentences
Identify the relationship among various parts of a compound or complex sentence
Identify the relationship among various parts of a simple sentence

• Understanding Relationships

Patterns of Organization

Behind every great movie is a great script. The script is the blueprint for what will occur in the movie, what actors will say and do, and what will be the overall message of the movie. But before a screenwriter creates a script, he has to first consider what the movie will say to audiences — its message — and the best format for that message. For movies, the format falls within a genre, such as romantic comedy, horror, thriller, or action. After selecting a message and genre, the screenwriter can shape the story. But how does that relate to college reading? Authors of textbooks, articles, novels, and essays have to consider how to frame and share their messages too. Authors look for common ways to organize ideas, which help readers understand an author's message. Learning to identify common methods that authors employ to shape their messages will help you become a more capable reader.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify words that indicate a pattern or patterns in a paragraph
Categorize patterns of organization in a paragraph
Determine whether one or more patterns exist in a paragraph
Indicate the single pattern in a paragraph

• Patterns of Organization

Facts and Opinions

As a college student, you will encounter a vast amount of information and meet many people who have ideas they want to share with you. How do you make sense of all those ideas? Many college students make sense of new information by evaluating it — considering various aspects of an idea or set of ideas. To evaluate information that you encounter, it helps to look at the content of the ideas or information. This resource will address the nature of ideas as determined by their factual content. Determining whether information presented to you is based in fact or opinion will be an important part of your evaluation of new concepts and information.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Determine whether a main idea is supported with facts, opinions, or a mixture of facts and opinions in a paragraph
Identify supporting details that are facts, opinions, or a mixture of fact and opinion
Identify main ideas that are facts, opinions, or a mixture of fact and opinion
Identify sentences that can be validated for factual content in a paragraph

• Facts and Opinions

Inferences and Logical Conclusions

Effective readers must be able to grasp ideas on multiple levels. Authors, like the people you encounter in everyday life, state outright most of what they mean to communicate, but there are some ideas that authors only suggest. Communication is not just about what is stated directly. Thus, as a reader seeking to fully understand an author's communication, you must be willing to go beyond the stated ideas and seek those ideas that are suggested by the author's more direct statements. This means reading on multiple levels. The focus of this resource is to offer you strategies to delve beneath the surface-level meaning of a text.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Predict logical conclusions from data, facts, and statistics in a paragraph
Predict logical conclusions from the details in a paragraph
Draw logical conclusions based on the supporting details of a paragraph
Draw logical conclusions based on the main idea of a paragraph

• Inferences and Logical Conclusions

Identifying Author'S Purpose

As a person who communicates and receives communication from others, you are likely aware of the idea of purpose. You talk with someone for a reason, even if it is just to say hello. Friends text you to give you an update, to ask a question, to share a joke — all specific purposes or reasons. In general, every communication is made for a reason. This is also true of what you read. The books, blogs, websites, articles, and other written communication are all created for a purpose. As you become more aware as a reader, you'll find that being able to identify the author's purpose is another useful strategy to enhance your understanding.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe how to identify biased words in a passage used to persuade or to entertain
Determine the purpose based on the facts and opinions presented in a paragraph
Determine whether an author demonstrates more than one purpose in a paragraph
Identify the purpose of a paragraph

• Identifying Author'S Purpose

Identifying Author'S Tone

College reading requires a lot from a student. You must comprehend the overall message being communicated, and you have to consider various levels of meaning and intent. This topic expands on an important element of an author's message and supports your ability to understand what it means. Learning to identify an author's tone is an important part of reading a passage. As with many other aspects of the reading process, you will find that to identify tone, you must first employ other reading skills. Just as new drivers must learn to practice all of their new skills on the road, you will learn to navigate through the reading process with all of your skills in use.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Determine whether a paragraph has more than one recognizable tone
Determine the overall tone in a paragraph Identify words that demonstrate an unbiased or biased tone in a paragraph
Identify weather an author uses an unbiased or biased tone in a paragraph

• Identifying Author'S Tone

Understanding Literal Information

Reading for purpose is an essential ability that college readers must employ. Just as authors write with a purpose, readers have a reason for reading. While some of the reading that you do for your college resources may be pleasant and enjoyable, you are generally reading with a specific goal in mind. That goal may be to learn about something new, to understand concepts or ideas, or to research a topic. Reading to gather information requires a certain type of focus, and it requires the reader to look for specific types of information.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify interpretive information in a paragraph
Identify literal information in a paragraph
Identify the type of interpretive information that can be found in a paragraph
Identify the type of literal information that can be found in a paragraph
Indicate how to find literal information in a paragraph

• Understanding Literal Information

Answering Questions

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Construct interpretive questions based on the main idea and supporting details of a paragraph
Explain how to determine whether a question about a paragraph requires an interpretive answer
Construct literal questions based on the main idea and supporting details of a paragraph

• Answering Questions

Developmental Writing

Clear Writing

Good writing has a number of qualities that make it stand out, but clarity is the most important element. Whether the document is a short note to a friend or a formal paper for presentation at work, clear and cohesive writing makes a difference. When writing is clear, sentences flow better and everything connects. Perhaps the surest sign of good writing is when the reader isn't even aware of the quality of writing. That's because the reader is focusing on absorbing the message instead of being distracted by awkward phrases and usage errors.

Word choice is a major component of good writing. The words you choose depend on the intended audience. An informal note has a different tone and probably a different vocabulary than a more formal or academic document. Whatever the type of document, it is still important to make sure the writing is clear and understandable. One way to help ensure your writing is clear is to determine the purpose of what you are writing before you begin. Who is the intended audience? What is the information you want to convey? Knowing the answers to these questions will give you a better frame of reference.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Revise written text for unity, order, coherence, and word choice
Identify the purpose and audience for a written passage Identify the topic of a written passage
Describe the elements and purpose of clear writing
Describe reasons for clear writing Identify elements that characterize clear writing

• Clear Writing

Standard American English (SAE)

“C u later,” “BBS,” “TTYL,” and “LOL” are common texting phrases and acronyms. They match the form and purpose of the writing since text messages are typically informal and short. But academic and professional disresource requires that information is communicated using more formal means. Standard American English (SAE) equips us with a set of rules that can be applied to English usage. These rules allow people to communicate clearly and coherently in both formal and informal situations. When and how we use SAE depends on what we are writing and to whom, but even a short email note to a potential employer should be in SAE.

When writing, you should focus on several components. The first is vocabulary. Choose words that are appropriate for your audience. Words that are too simple can seem condescending, but words that are too elaborate can lose readers' interest. Choose words that convey what you want to say, and avoid confusing words or misusing words. There should be no errors in punctuation, grammar, or spelling. Even though people may still understand what you have written, grammatical errors such as these will cause the audience to question the content and even the credibility of the author. A piece of writing that is grammatically flawless and that uses the correct words can still be difficult to read if it doesn't flow well. Make sure that your writing makes its points confidently and that it has focus. This adds a sense of authority to your words, and it also makes your writing more compelling to your audience.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Revise texts for Standard American English
Identify text written in Standard American English
Provide reasons for using Standard American English in written communication

• Standard American English (SAE)

Audience, Purpose, and Context

Writing is often difficult because there are many components to keep track of and organize. Factors you need to consider when writing include audience, purpose, context, voice, and tone. Your audience is important because knowing who your readers are—both intended and potential—will guide the message you are trying to convey through your writing. You need to know what your audience expects of you if you want to produce an effective piece of writing. Your purpose—why you are writing—has an impact on everything, from the length of the piece you are writing to whether it is formal or more colloquial in style to what sort of information you want to convey. This is as true for a short text message as it is for a long essay. The context around which you are writing will affect the logistics of the writing process.

Variables in the writing process include time (deadlines), tools and resources (what research information is available), and your own expertise in the topic you are covering. Other variables might also include your personal experiences and your residual knowledge about the topic. Each writer's voice is unique. It is what gives a writer's work a distinctive feel when it is read. Authors who develop a strong voice often do so at the expense of conventional rules of usage and grammar. A talented writer can bend the rules, and in fact, good writers are able to bend the rules because they understand them so well to begin with. Tone is what gives the piece its emotion—a piece could be happy, sad, angry, or authoritative.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain voice and tone in writing
Explain context in writing
Explain purpose in writing
Distinguish the audience for a given text

• Audience, Purpose, and Context

Parts of Speech and The Simple Sentence

An understanding of the parts of speech is necessary for any writer who wants to communicate successfully. Nouns are words that signify people, places, items, or objects. Writers know the difference between concrete nouns (tangible items) and abstract nouns (concepts) and know which kind of noun to use when. Verbs give a sentence action. They can take several forms and tenses, allowing the writer to stay in the present, take readers back into the past, or move them forward into the future. Prepositions are linking tools that add to the richness of descriptions. They give us information that provides the reader with a more complete picture of what is going on. Pronouns are an important tool for avoiding repetition and offering a general term when a specific one would be too cumbersome. Adjectives and adverbs give description to nouns and verbs that, though adequate, often don't provide detail. They can also provide degrees of description in their comparative and superlative forms.

All of the parts of speech are essential if you want to write rich and evocative sentences, but it is important to remember that sentences start with a basic framework of a noun and verb. A noun and verb may form the simplest sentence, but writers build from there to create more complex sentences and concepts. Even the most elaborate sentence can be broken down into its simplest components.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Write a simple sentence
Explain how prepositions are used in writing
Explain how adjectives and adverbs are used in writing
Explain how pronouns are used in writing
Explain how verbs are used in writing
Explain how nouns are used in writing

• Parts of Speech and The Simple Sentence

The Complex Sentence

The very reason why the English language is so expressive and dynamic is the same reason it is hard to learn. There are a number of rules related not only to how we use parts of speech but also how we structure sentences in writing. Many of the rules are quite straightforward and easy to follow. Subject-verb agreement is a good example: singular subjects take singular verbs, but plural subjects take plural verbs. In simple sentences, this is an easy rule to follow. In sentences that are more complex—those with several clauses and conjunctions—it may be harder to figure out which word is the subject of the sentence. It can certainly be done, but it takes extra time.

If you are familiar with complex forms, you are better equipped to use them. Understanding complex sentences allows you to create them, making you a more versatile and interesting writer. Many people believe that short, simple sentences are easier to understand than more complex ones, but including complex sentences in the mix makes a piece of writing much more compelling. Reading the same type of sentence over and over again is tedious, and readers won't absorb what they are reading if they find it boring. The best writers are able to add variety by mixing shorter and longer sentences together.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Analyze a passage of writing for sentence variety
Use subordinating conjunctions in complex sentences
Use coordinating conjunctions in complex sentences
Explain a complex sentence
Explain subject-verb agreement

• The Complex Sentence

Sentence Mechanics

Words alone are not enough to complete a piece of writing. How the words are arranged and separated is equally as important. We rely on punctuation to break up sentences and give us visual cues as to how the text should be read. We know, for example, that a sentence that ends with a question mark is a question. Despite some exceptions, the rules of punctuation are generally straightforward. The rules of spelling are more complex because there are numerous exceptions. Some rules (such as the classic “i before e except after c”) are generally consistent, but it is still a good idea to double-check. Writers can use computerized spell-check programs to make sure that words are spelled correctly. However, spell check only confirms spelling—it does not recognize context, so it is possible to use the wrong word even though it is spelled correctly.

Committing spelling rules to memory (often with the help of tricks or mnemonics) and consistent practice will help build a bank of spelling knowledge. There are fewer exceptions to the rules of capitalization, but it is still good to double-check. Capitalization helps the reader see when sentences begin and also helps important words stand out (names of people or places, for example). One of the best ways to get a feel for the rules and patterns of sentences is to read avidly. The more you read, the more you will see for yourself how sentences are supposed to be laid out, and then you will understand how sentence structure works.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain capitalization rules
Explain spelling rules
Use proper punctuation

• Sentence Mechanics

Common Sentence Errors

Even people who write well can make mistakes that result in awkward phrasing, confusing structure, and words that don't match up. Careful writers go over their work so that they can avoid these pitfalls or at least minimize them. Sentence fragments may make sense in context, but when readers see a part of a sentence with no subject or verb, it confuses them. The same thing happens with run-on sentences: readers know what the writer means, but the form throws them off. Writers should remember that the more carefully they convey their message, the more seriously they will be taken by their readers. That is one reason it is important to spot these types of errors and correct them. Misplaced and dangling modifiers can make a sentence harder to follow because often they can be interpreted more than one way. The addition of a word or two is usually enough to solve the problem. Flawed parallel structure is easy to spot and in most cases can be remedied simply by altering a word or phrase.

Word choice is a key component of good writing, but choosing the wrong word is one of the most common problems. Writers need to double-check their word choices to avoid this problem. Many writers benefit from memorizing words that confuse them. Spell-check programs tend not to be useful for solving word-choice problems. It is far better to review a piece of writing to ensure the right words are being used.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain how to correct confused and misused words
Explain how to correct faulty parallel structure
Explain how to correct misplaced and dangling modifiers
Explain how to correct sentence run-ons
Explain how to correct sentence fragments

• Common Sentence Errors

The Writing Process

The writing process actually begins before you start writing. Many people engage in prewriting by asking themselves why they are writing, what they are writing about, and for whom they are writing. By knowing the answers to these questions before you begin, you can approach your writing with more focus and energy. Some people find that making a list or an outline before writing is helpful. Others believe jumping in to the first draft is the way to get started. Some people find freewriting helpful—simply writing any thoughts about the topic in no specific order and with no particular plan. Others like to brainstorm by writing all their thoughts down like a list, hoping that one of their ideas will click and give them the direction they need.

Drafts allow you to put words to paper. The first draft for most people is just a matter of getting the idea out, with attention to grammar, usage, spelling, and punctuation coming later. Some people go through one or two drafts, whereas others may go through several rounds before they are satisfied. As the draft comes closer to completion, it is important to start revising and editing. Revising can be anything from changing the order of a few words to moving entire paragraphs, and it also includes developing the voice and tone of a piece. Editing focuses on punctuation, spelling, grammar, and usage issues. Although revising and editing focus on different elements, they are equally important to the quality of the final draft.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Distinguish between revising and editing
Explain the purpose of writing drafts
Explain prewriting techniques

• The Writing Process

Modes and Their Purpose

The strategies writers use to develop what they write are called modes. In general, modes are straightforward: narration is when a writer uses first-person voice, illustration is when a writer provides specific examples to make a point, and comparison and contrast is when a writer explains the similarities and differences between two subjects. It is common to use two or more modes together. Many of them complement one another, and they can open a piece of writing up to a larger audience. How you choose which mode or modes to use depends in part on your purpose. If, for example, you are telling a personal story about a specific event in your life, the modes you choose might include narration, description, and perhaps illustration. An essay in which you want to compare two different economic theories might employ modes such as comparison and contrast, illustration, and perhaps cause and effect.

As with any piece of writing, your purpose—why you are writing—and your audience (both actual and implied) are key considerations, and your choice of mode will be influenced by these factors. Modes can help you make the right choices when it comes to issues such as purpose and audience, and you can adapt different modes to suit your needs.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Use modes to organize ideas
Identify modes in writing passages
Determine the appropriate mode(s) for a given writing requirement
Distinguish between different types of modes

• Modes and Their Purpose

The Paragraph

Even though a paragraph is shorter than a full essay, it follows the same basic structure. As with any piece of writing, before you write a paragraph you must determine your purpose, or why you are writing. You also want to determine who your audience is and how to structure the paragraph to draw in readers and keep them interested. Your first step in creating a good paragraph is the topic sentence. This tells the reader what the paragraph is about and provides the initial focus that will keep the reader interested. Once you create your topic sentence, you need to determine how to illustrate the key ideas of your paragraph. Again, your goal is to get your message across and hold the reader's interest.

Mapping out your key ideas can be a helpful step. Often something as simple as a brief outline can help you organize your ideas effectively. Your concluding sentence is as important as your topic sentence. This is where you wrap everything up without simply repeating what has already been discussed. Your concluding sentence or sentences should provide a sense of satisfaction for the reader that all the points have been made in a clear and coherent manner. If the paragraph is part of a longer essay, the concluding sentence should also serve as a transition so that each paragraph flows smoothly into the next one.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Write a concluding sentence for a paragraph
Choose the key ideas to support a paragraph's topic
Write a topic sentence
Determine the purpose and audience of a paragraph

• The Paragraph

Information Literacy

The material you use to support your claims when you write is as important as the words you choose. By using the right information, you can make your case and back it up with strong evidence. Research basically falls into one of two categories: primary (which you do yourself by examining original sources) and secondary (examining research done by others who have examined original sources). Primary research allows you to draw your own conclusions. Secondary research shows your sources through the filter of someone who has already evaluated the material. The library and the Internet are two of the best places to conduct research. The library's strength is the quality of its offerings (including the librarians, who are trained to find information); its weakness is that its resources often are limited.

Although the Internet has virtually no limits, there is so much information that it's impossible to know whether it's accurate without checking carefully. When including information from your research sources in your text, you need to remember to cite each quote, paraphrase, and summary. This not only adds authority to what you have written, it also keeps you from getting accused of plagiarism, or attributing another's words or thoughts to yourself. Make sure you use the proper format for citations.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain the difference between quotations, paraphrasing, and summarizing
Explain the importance of citing information
Explain the characteristics of proper information used in supporting a claim

• Information Literacy

The Essay

One of the most important skills you can have in life is the ability to communicate effectively through writing. In college, a common assignment in many classes is the academic essay. Writing an essay is a multistep process. Before you even begin, you need to know what you see as the goal of your essay—what message you want it to convey—and you need to know who your audience is. You want to present your information in a way that draws in your audience and keeps them interested. A formal tone will work for academic essays, but you will likely choose a more colloquial tone for an informal topic. Your thesis statement is a guide for you and your readers—it states exactly the essay's main point. From there, you can determine how you want to present your point to make a strong impression.

Creating an outline of your essay before you start writing helps you keep track of your main points and stay organized. Your essay should have an introduction, which allows you to state your case and provides the readers with a preview of what to expect as they continue. The body of your essay will be where you state your points and lay out your narrative. This is true whether you are writing a formal academic essay or a more colloquial piece on an informal topic. Your concluding paragraph is where you get a chance to wrap everything up and leave your readers feeling like they have benefitted from this reading experience.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Write the conclusion of an essay
Write the body of an essay
Write the introduction of an essay
Outline the key ideas of an essay
Write the thesis of an essay
Determine the purpose and audience for an essay

• The Essay

Developmental Math

Whole Numbers

Developmental Math resources help students gain the basic knowledge of math including measurement, fractions and decimals, ratios and percentages, simple statistics, geometry, arithmetic operations with real numbers, and algebra. Almost every professional in the workplace must use some level of math to accurately perform measurements, to convert from one unit to another, to understand simple statistics, to calculate rates and percentages, to complete geometry problems, and to solve a variety of problems using algebra.

This resource demonstrates for learners the ability to solve basic math problems using whole numbers including addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponents, and applying correct order of operations.

• Whole Numbers

Factors and Fractions

• Factors and Fractions

Mixed and Improper Fractions

COMING SOON! This resource allows students to gain the basic knowledge of math including measurement, fractions and decimals, ratios and percentages, simple statistics, geometry, arithmetic operations with real numbers, and algebra. Almost every professional in the workplace must use some level of math to accurately perform measurements, to convert from one unit to another, to understand simple statistics, to calculate rates and percentages, to complete geometry problems, and to solve a variety of problems using algebra. This resource demonstrates for learners the ability to solve problems involving mixed and fractions including mixed and improper fractions, multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction.

• Mixed and Improper Fractions

Operations with Decimals

COMING SOON! Developmental Math resources help students gain the basic knowledge of math including measurement, fractions and decimals, ratios and percentages, simple statistics, geometry, arithmetic operations with real numbers, and algebra. Almost every professional in the workplace must use some level of math to accurately perform measurements, to convert from one unit to another, to understand simple statistics, to calculate rates and percentages, to complete geometry problems, and to solve a variety of problems using algebra. This resource demonstrates for learners the ability to solve problems involving decimals.

• Operations with Decimals

Ratios, Rates, And Percents

• Ratios, Rates, And Percents

U.S. and Metric Measurement

COMING SOON! These resources help students gain the basic knowledge of math including measurement, fractions and decimals, ratios and percentages, simple statistics, geometry, arithmetic operations with real numbers, and algebra. Almost every professional in the workplace must use some level of math to accurately perform measurements, to convert from one unit to another, to understand simple statistics, to calculate rates and percentages, to complete geometry problems, and to solve a variety of problems using algebra. This resource demonstrates for learners the ability to solve problems involving U.S., metric measurements, and conversion between the two systems.

• U.S. and Metric Measurement

Geometry

• Geometry

More Geometry

COMING SOON! This resource allows students to gain the basic knowledge of math including measurement, fractions and decimals, ratios and percentages, simple statistics, geometry, arithmetic operations with real numbers, and algebra. Almost every professional in the workplace must use some level of math to accurately perform measurements, to convert from one unit to another, to understand simple statistics, to calculate rates and percentages, to complete geometry problems, and to solve a variety of problems using algebra. This resource demonstrates for learners the ability to solve problems involving basic geometry including lines, angles, perimeter, area, and circumference, solve problems involving geometry including volume, square roots, the Pythagorean Theorem, and triangles, solve problems involving basic geometry including lines, angles, perimeter, area, and circumference and solve problems involving geometry including volume, square roots, the Pythagorean Theorem, and triangles

• More Geometry

Statistics

• Statistics

Real Numbers and Variables

COMING SOON! These resources help students gain the basic knowledge of math including measurement, fractions and decimals, ratios and percentages, simple statistics, geometry, arithmetic operations with real numbers, and algebra. Almost every professional in the workplace must use some level of math to accurately perform measurements, to convert from one unit to another, to understand simple statistics, to calculate rates and percentages, to complete geometry problems, and to solve a variety of problems using algebra. This resource demonstrates for learners the ability to solve problems involving real numbers including graphing rational numbers, translating phrases into algebraic inequalities, and finding the absolute value.

• Real Numbers and Variables

Real Number Computations

• Real Number Computations

Variables and Expressions

COMING SOON! This resource allows students to gain the basic knowledge of math including measurement, fractions and decimals, ratios and percentages, simple statistics, geometry, arithmetic operations with real numbers, and algebra. Almost every professional in the workplace must use some level of math to accurately perform measurements, to convert from one unit to another, to understand simple statistics, to calculate rates and percentages, to complete geometry problems, and to solve a variety of problems using algebra. This resource demonstrates for learners the ability to solve problems involving variables and expressions including evaluating algebraic expressions, simplifying expressions, and translating words into symbols.

• Variables and Expressions

Addition & Multiplication Properties of Equality

COMING SOON! These resources help students gain the basic knowledge of math including measurement, fractions and decimals, ratios and percentages, simple statistics, geometry, arithmetic operations with real numbers, and algebra. Almost every professional in the workplace must use some level of math to accurately perform measurements, to convert from one unit to another, to understand simple statistics, to calculate rates and percentages, to complete geometry problems, and to solve a variety of problems using algebra. This resource demonstrates for learners the ability to solve problems involving linear equations using the addition and multiplication properties of equality

• Addition & Multiplication Properties of Equality

Solving Linear Equations

• Solving Linear Equations

Solving More Linear Equations and Inequalities

• Solving More Linear Equations and Inequalities

Graphing Linear Equations, Slope, and Equation of a Line

COMING SOON! These resources help students gain the basic knowledge of math including measurement, fractions and decimals, ratios and percentages, simple statistics, geometry, arithmetic operations with real numbers, and algebra. Almost every professional in the workplace must use some level of math to accurately perform measurements, to convert from one unit to another, to understand simple statistics, to calculate rates and percentages, to complete geometry problems, and to solve a variety of problems using algebra. This resource demonstrates for learners the ability to solve problems involving graphing of linear equations solve problems involving the slope and equation of a line.

• Graphing Linear Equations, Slope, and Equation of a Line

Functions

COMING SOON! Resources in Calculus are essential to many different professionals who work in engineering, economics, education, and finance require a foundational knowledge of calculus concepts to understand and perform tasks in their daily responsibilities. This resource demonstrates for learners the ability to determine what functions are, how they are pictured as graphs, how they are combined and transformed, and how they can be classified.

• Functions

Solving Systems of Linear Equations

• Solving Systems of Linear Equations

Polynomials and Exponent Rules

• Polynomials and Exponent Rules

Multiplying and Dividing Polynomials

• Multiplying and Dividing Polynomials

Factoring Polynomials and Quadratic Equations

• Factoring Polynomials and Quadratic Equations

Rational Expressions

• Rational Expressions

Adding And Subtracting Rational Expressions

• Adding And Subtracting Rational Expressions

Complex Rational Expressions And Rational Equations

COMING SOON! These resources help students gain the basic knowledge of math including measurement, fractions and decimals, ratios and percentages, simple statistics, geometry, arithmetic operations with real numbers, and algebra. Almost every professional in the workplace must use some level of math to accurately perform measurements, to convert from one unit to another, to understand simple statistics, to calculate rates and percentages, to complete geometry problems, and to solve a variety of problems using algebra. This resource demonstrates for learners the ability to solve problems involving complex rational expressions and rational equations

• Complex Rational Expressions And Rational Equations

Roots and Radicals

COMING SOON! These resources help students gain the basic knowledge of math including measurement, fractions and decimals, ratios and percentages, simple statistics, geometry, arithmetic operations with real numbers, and algebra. Almost every professional in the workplace must use some level of math to accurately perform measurements, to convert from one unit to another, to understand simple statistics, to calculate rates and percentages, to complete geometry problems, and to solve a variety of problems using algebra. This resource demonstrates for learners the ability to solve problems involving roots and radical expressions including the Pythagorean Theorem and Distance Formula.

• Roots and Radicals

Variation

• Variation

Operations Of Radical Expressions

• Operations Of Radical Expressions

Solving Quadratic Equations

• Solving Quadratic Equations

Complex Numbers and More Quadratic Equations

COMING SOON! These resources help students gain the basic knowledge of math including measurement, fractions and decimals, ratios and percentages, simple statistics, geometry, arithmetic operations with real numbers, and algebra. Almost every professional in the workplace must use some level of math to accurately perform measurements, to convert from one unit to another, to understand simple statistics, to calculate rates and percentages, to complete geometry problems, and to solve a variety of problems using algebra. This resource demonstrates for learners the ability to solve problems involving complex numbers including those involving quadratic equations.

• Complex Numbers and More Quadratic Equations

Graphing Quadratic Functions

• Graphing Quadratic Functions

Compound And Non-Linear Inequalities

• Compound And Non-Linear Inequalities

Absolute Value Equations And Inequalities

• Absolute Value Equations And Inequalities

Conic Sections

COMING SOON! This resource allows students to gain the mathematical competencies that support accounting and other business tasks. Strong skills in algebra and statistics greatly increase an accounting professional's value. Algebra is particularly relevant to management accounting analysis in in which the accountant uses mathematical models to understand relationships and facilitate decision-making. Statistics plays an increasingly important role in accounting especially in this age of “Big Data.” As companies aim to leverage greater amounts of consumer data, a thorough grounding in statistics becomes an increasingly important skill. Additionally, accountants in an auditing role conduct reliability assessments when gathering evidence. Controllers and others use statistics to create analyses and forecasts, and managerial accountants leverage statistical models to gather evidence for policy recommendations. This resource demonstrates for learners the ability to solve applied problems involving ellipses, hyperbolas, and parabolas..

• Conic Sections

Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

• Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Logarithmic and Exponential Equations

• Logarithmic and Exponential Equations

Economics

The Economic Way of Thinking

Economics is the study of how people produce, acquire, and distribute goods and services. In simplified terms, economics studies the quantities of goods and services people want or need, or the supply, and the relationship to how much people need or want them, also called the demand. Economics asks what determines the amounts of goods or services produced, how those goods and services are produced, and for whom those goods and services are being produced. When people make a purchase, they weigh the pros and cons of the transaction by measuring the costs versus the benefits. If the costs are higher than the benefits, they may not make the purchase. Most people purchase consumption goods, which include everything from candy bars to boats. These are the items people buy to make their lives more comfortable. Businesses and the government follow a similar process on a larger scale. Goods are produced through capital (including factories and tools), natural resources, and human labor. Resources are finite, and even in a strong and vibrant economy choices must be made about which goods will be produced. If one product is in higher demand than another, that product will be produced in greater quantity. The opportunity cost of producing the more popular product is that a smaller quantity of the less popular product will be produced.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the basic economic questions that any society must answer
Explain the core ideas that combine to make up the economic way of thinking
Explain the way the three basic economic questions influence goods and services in the global economy
Describe what, how, and for whom goods and services are produced in the global economy
Describe how specialization and trade affect the expansion of production possibilities
Apply the concept of opportunity cost to the tradeoffs we make when dealing with scarcity

• The Economic Way of Thinking

Supply and Demand

Demand is the relationship between the price of a good and how much of that good consumers want to purchase (all elements being equal). Supply is the relationship (with all elements being equal) between the price of a good and how much of that good is produced or available. Quantity demanded and quantity supplied represent specific amounts at a specific price. Any price variation will affect quantity demanded and quantity supplied. The other varieties of apples are substitute goods if demand for a single variety outweighs all others. The expectation of future price increases, or a change in personal buying power or personal preferences, can all affect demand. Issues that affect supply include the cost of substitute goods, the cost of producing the goods in question, and worker productivity.

Market equilibrium is the state at which the quantity of goods supplied equals the quantity of goods demanded. A surplus results when the quantity of goods supplied is higher than the quantity of goods demanded. When the reverse is true (lower quantity of goods supplied), the result is a shortage. Despite the complexity of markets, market equilibrium stays relatively steady in most cases. Whenever a surplus or a shortage occurs, prices tend to adjust accordingly, which counters any imbalance that would otherwise put either producers or consumers at a disadvantage.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain what causes changes in demand and quantities demanded
Explain what causes changes in supply and quantities supplied
Analyze the effects of changes in demand and supply on market equilibrium

• Supply and Demand

Changes In Supply and Demand

Consumer surplus is the marginal benefit of a good or service minus the price paid for it. Producer surplus is the price of a good minus the cost of producing it. When consumers pay less for a good than they expected to pay, they have a consumer surplus. When producers charge more for a good than it cost to make, they have a producer surplus. In an efficient marketplace, the quantities of goods and services produced meet the level consumers want. Market equilibrium exists when marginal benefits equal marginal costs. Either underproduction or overproduction can disrupt balance and reduce market efficiency. The resulting losses are known as deadweight losses. Markets should be both efficient and fair; however, there are conflicting ideas on what defines fairness. Some economists believe fairness is based in the rules of economics, whereas others believe fairness resides in the results.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Measure the price elasticity of demand and supply
Measure the cross-elasticity and income elasticity of demand
Calculate changes in consumer and producer surplus
Evaluate alternatives for fair and efficient allocation of scarce resources

• Changes In Supply and Demand

Government Actions and Markets

Governments intervene in markets in a number of ways, such as through taxes. Sales tax affects supply and demand in two ways. For the buyer, it is an added cost, and combined with the price of the good, it may be more than some are willing to spend. For the seller, it creates fewer buyers, meaning a smaller supply of goods is necessary. Other forms of government intervention are price floors and ceilings. For example, minimum wage— the lowest rate that companies are allowed to pay employees—is a classic price floor. On the one hand, minimum wage protects workers from being paid less than a guaranteed amount for their work. On the other hand, from an economic standpoint, if a minimum wage is set above the equilibrium wage rate, the quantity of labor supplied is less than the quantity of labor demanded, and the minimum wage can actually increase unemployment numbers. Rent control is a price ceiling designed to protect people from exorbitant rents; however, it keeps rents artificially low and ultimately results in a shortage of available apartments because turnover is also low.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain the impact of different types of taxes
Explain the effects of price floors and price ceilings
Illustrate efficiency losses from government actions

• Government Actions and Markets

Comparative Advantage

When discussing advantage, it is important to remember that overall performance is what carries the most weight. Comparative advantage, for example, is the ability to perform an action at a lower opportunity cost than another person or entity. Absolute advantage is the ability to perform at a higher level of productivity. Yet, an entity that holds absolute advantage in several activities may not have a comparative advantage in any. A comparative advantage, when strong, can generate enough revenue and business that it makes up for absolute advantage that is not as strong or viable. For example, if company A has an absolute advantage in making staplers but a comparative advantage in making computers, the revenue generated from computers over staplers makes that comparative advantage more valuable.

In today's economy, global trade plays a key role; however, imports and exports can be both beneficial and problematic. Imports are attractive to consumers when they cost less than domestic goods. The problem is for domestic manufacturers to determine how to sell their goods to a domestic market without losing money. Exports can bring in money for domestic manufacturers unable to produce at a lower cost than the world price but sell at or close to that price. Still, domestic producers dislike competition from imports, and governments often assist in the form of tariffs, import quotas, and export subsidies. Taxes, fees, and restrictions keep overseas products from gaining too strong a foothold in the domestic market. However, consumers ultimately pay more for products, which is one reason many economists argue that free trade is the best long-term strategy.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the effects of global trade within markets
Identify potential gains and losses from international trade
Assess the justification for international trade restrictions

• Comparative Advantage

Externalities

We often encounter externalities in day-to-day life. When your neighbors remodel the exterior of their home, this may increase the purchase price of your home. The costs or benefits that accrue from production or consumption, as they affect third parties, are known as externalities. Externalities can be positive by creating benefits or negative by creating costs, and they can affect both production and consumption. Though they have economic benefits, they also have other benefits. For example, a positive production externality is when bees in an apiary pollinate flowers in nearby farms. The apiary enhances fruit production. Education is considered a positive consumption externality because more-educated people are more likely to be productive citizens.

A negative production externality is pollution from a nearby factory, and a negative consumption externality is second-hand cigarette smoke. Negative externalities can have a negative economic impact by creating deadweight losses. Pollution is one of the most often-cited examples of a negative production and consumption externality. It comes with a high monetary and social cost, and it can have both local and longer-distance implications. Positive externalities, despite their benefits, are not without costs. The equilibrium quantity is lower than the efficient quantity that is produced in a private market with a positive externality. Governments can intervene to lessen the effects of externalities through a variety of restrictions and regulations. To manage the issue of pollution, for example, governments can set limits on allowable pollution, levy taxes on companies that pollute, or implement marketable pollution permits that impose restrictions and offer some flexibility.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain externalities
Explain the influence of negative externalities on inefficient overproduction
Explain the influence of positive externalities on inefficient underproduction
Analyze the effects of different government strategies for market efficiencies when externalities are present

• Externalities

Costs of Production

Profit drives even the most altruistic businesses, and maximizing profit is the most compelling goal. Without profit, a business cannot grow and accomplish new ventures. Determining profits involves several steps, one of which is identifying and measuring opportunity costs. These costs can be explicit, such as anything that is paid in actual money, or implicit, such as depreciation, capital, and labor. Though the more tangible accounting profit is critical to businesses, understanding opportunity costs is also vital because it impacts the bottom line. Most businesses operate with the long term in mind, and improving long-term performance is a key objective. One way companies can improve long-range performance is to adjust size. This can mean opening or closing new facilities, adjusting the number of employees, or finding new ways to manage production.

Companies need to understand economies of scale, constant returns to scale, and diseconomies of scale, which are perhaps the most important to understand because they indicate that output is increasing less than input. When companies grow larger and open several locations, they often become harder to manage because communication is more challenging across several locations. Controlling production is vitally important for any company that wants to maximize its profits. When marginal revenue equals marginal costs, profit is maximized. If marginal revenue is higher, companies can increase profits by increasing output. If marginal revenue is lower than marginal costs, companies can decrease output to maximize profits. Sometimes companies find themselves in a situation in which revenue does not exceed fixed and variable costs. This is often a temporary situation that can be remedied by a short-term shutdown of the business.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Articulate methods for measuring a firm's production and profit
Explain the relationship between a firm's output and costs in the short run
Describe the determinants of a firm's output and costs in the long run
Use cost relationships to predict a firm's profit-maximizing decisions

• Costs of Production

Perfect Competition

In perfect competition, many sellers offer identical goods to buyers, with no single seller possessing an advantage. Anyone can enter a perfectly competitive market; there are no restrictions or barriers. Sellers and buyers tend to be equally knowledgeable about prices. This contrasts with other types of markets. Monopoly is when one single firm sells a specific product that has no close substitutes. Oligopoly occurs when several interdependent firms control the production and sale of a specific good. Monopolistic competition is when a large number of firms, such as restaurants, compete by producing slightly different products. A company in a state of perfect competition is a price taker—it does not set its own prices. Its marginal revenue is equal to market price. A perfectly competitive company that wants to maximize profit must produce a quantity of output at which economic profit is at its maximum. When marginal revenue exceeds marginal cost, the company can increase profits by increasing output. When marginal cost exceeds marginal revenue, a company can decrease output to increase revenue.

Perfect competition causes marginal benefit to equal marginal cost, which makes perfect competition efficient. Demand and supply can change, which can affect price, quantity, and profit. In the long term, a company makes a normal profit, but no economic profit. Economic profits and losses cause the market to change not only because of the numbers themselves, but also because companies will either enter or depart the market. New firms enter when profits rise, which lowers market price and reduces profits for everyone. Companies that leave the market during times of loss, however, can help the market because their departure reduces competition and allows prices to rise. This translates into higher profits for the remaining companies.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Distinguish perfectly competitive market conditions
Describe how a firm operating in perfect competition maximizes profit in the short run
Explain the efficiency of perfect competition in the long run

• Perfect Competition

Different Market Structures

To be considered a monopoly, a company has to be the sole seller of a product or service that has no close substitutes. There also have to be barriers preventing others from entering into the market to compete. Those barriers can be that the company is meeting the total demand for its product at a better price than two or more firms could, that the company owns so much of the natural resources needed for creating its product that other companies cannot afford to enter the market, or that the company has created a regulatory barrier with official restrictions, such as a patent. Utility companies are another example. For others, however, the curtailment of competition leads to potentially higher prices.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Determine the efficiency of a monopoly versus a market in perfect competition
Explain how firms behave in monopolistic competition
Describe the behavior of oligopolistic industries

• Different Market Structures

Gross Domestic Product

Gross domestic product (GDP) is one way to measure the strength and direction of the economy. New housing starts are always a sign of economic prosperity. GDP is the market value of all the final goods and services produced domestically during a specified time period. It differs from gross national product (GNP) in that GNP measures goods manufactured overseas for domestic firms. Real GDP, which is GDP valued at constant prices, can be correlated to employment levels. When it rises, employment rises, and when it falls, unemployment rises. Unemployment, averaged out over the past 80 years, has been approximately 5.7%. Unemployment is measured against the total labor force. It can be related to economic conditions or to normal business turnover; it can also be seasonal or cyclical. Full employment is when there is no cyclical unemployment.

Even under the best circumstances, there will always be some individuals who are unemployed; this is known as the natural rate of unemployment. Whether employed or unemployed, people are concerned with their cost of living. The consumer price index (CPI) is one measure of cost of living. Although it measures only one segment of the population and a specific list of goods purchased, it does provide insight into inflation and deflation and a picture of whether dollars go farther today than they did in the past.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain how the gross domestic product is measured
Describe the meaning of unemployment and its link to the gross domestic product
Explain the concepts of unemployment and full employment
Describe how the Consumer Price Index is calculated
Calculate real wages and interest rates based on principles of inflation

• Gross Domestic Product

Economic Growth

Understanding why some countries become richer while others remain poor is tied to many factors, especially economic growth and production possibilities, or a country's potential GDP. Potential gross domestic product (GDP) equals real GDP during a period of full employment. Real GDP is the value of final goods and services produced over a specific year at constant prices. Full employment is defined as the employment level when there is no cyclical unemployment. Potential GDP is higher than real GDP when full employment does not exist. In cases where some sectors of the economy are experiencing over employment, potential GDP is lower than real GDP. Both real and potential GDP are linked closely to production levels. Economic growth means a sustained expansion, not the cyclical expansion that accompanies an economic boom or the recovery that follows a recession. Growth is calculated through measurements, such as real GDP.

These calculations—such as real GDP per person (real GDP divided by the population)—are used to measure the standard of living. You can calculate these figures not only domestically but also for other countries as a means of measuring growth against other economies. The quantity of labor growth and the growth of labor productivity are both factors in determining the growth of real GDP. In turn, these factors are tied to population growth, workforce participation, physical capital (factories, machines, tools), and technological advances. Economic growth also needs economic freedom—individual free choice, private property rights, and free markets—if it wants to thrive. Economic freedom and political freedom are not always found together, but countries that value the rule of law can have solid economic growth.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the concept of potential of gross domestic product
Solve for the economic growth rate of a given year
Describe the key sources of economic growth
Analyze government actions undertaken to promote economic growth

• Economic Growth

Fiscal and Monetary Policy

The Federal Reserve System, the central bank of the United States, is the regulatory authority for the domestic banking industry and the nation's money supply. A board of governors headed by a chair runs the Fed. The chair is also the public face of monetary policy. The board oversees the 12 regional headquarters of the Fed. Monetary policy comes from the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), which includes the Fed chair, board of governors, and regional leaders. The Fed sets monetary policy through controlling the interest rate and the amount of money in circulation. It determines how much banks need to hold as reserves, and it sets the interest rates banks pay to borrow money. In times of crisis, the Fed can act quickly to implement emergency or stopgap measures.

The federal budget includes the annual expenditures and tax revenues of the U.S. government. Each year the budget must be approved by Congress and signed into law by the president. Two types of fiscal policy guide the budget: discretionary, which is generated by deliberate Congressional action, and automatic, which is influenced by the state of the economy. The government can use a variety of fiscal policy approaches to thwart recession-related monetary challenges or to lessen inflation-related challenges. The stimulus package, known as the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, enacted to counter the effects of the financial crisis of 2008 is an example of such government action. The Federal Reserve monitors economic conditions in each of the 12 regions and uses the information it gathers to help set monetary policy. It publishes a variety of analysis and data for banks, the government, and the public throughout the year, and the Fed chair testifies periodically before the House of Representatives' Committee on Financial Services.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify the institutions which constitute the monetary system in the U.S.
Define the tools available to the Federal Reserve to implement monetary policy
Explain how the federal government uses fiscal policy tools to improve economic outcomes
Describe the impact of monetary policy on the U.S. economy

• Fiscal and Monetary Policy

Macroeconomics

The Economic Way of Thinking

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the basic economic questions that any society must answer
Explain the core ideas that combine to make up the economic way of thinking
Explain the way the three basic economic questions influence goods and services in the global economy
Describe how specialization and trade affect the expansion of production possibilities
Apply the concept of opportunity cost to the tradeoffs we make when dealing with scarcity

• The Economic Way of Thinking

Demand and Supply

A visit to the produce section in the grocery story is a good example of the relationship of supply and demand for similar goods. Imagine your market has six varieties of apples for sale. Now think about the factors that could drive the purchase of one variety over the others. These factors could include price, taste, shelf life, and use. Demand is the relationship between the price of a good and how much of that good consumers want to purchase (all elements being equal). Supply is the relationship (with all elements being equal) between the price of a good and how much of that good is produced or available. Quantity demanded and quantity supplied represent specific amounts at a specific price. Any price variation will affect quantity demanded and quantity supplied. The other varieties of apples are substitute goods if demand for a single variety outweighs all others.

The expectation of future price increases, or a change in personal buying power or personal preferences, can all affect demand. Issues that affect supply include the cost of substitute goods, the cost of producing the goods in question, and worker productivity. Market equilibrium is the state at which the quantity of goods supplied equals the quantity of goods demanded. A surplus results when the quantity of goods supplied is higher than the quantity of goods demanded. When the reverse is true (lower quantity of goods supplied), the result is a shortage. Despite the complexity of markets, market equilibrium stays relatively steady in most cases. Whenever a surplus or a shortage occurs, prices tend to adjust accordingly, which counters any imbalance that would otherwise put either producers or consumers at a disadvantage.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain what causes changes in demand and quantities demanded
Explain what causes changes in supply and quantities supplied
Analyze the effects of changes in demand and supply on market equilibrium

• Demand and Supply

Changes In Supply and Demand

Changes in supply and demand are ongoing and can have significant impact. Price elasticity is used as a measurement of how quantities and price changes relate to each other. Some goods and services are more elastic than others, which affects the elasticity of their prices. There are also differences between substitutes and complements. A substitute product is something consumers can acquire in place of another, whereas a complement accompanies the goods being bought. For example, a hot dog could be a substitute for a hamburger, whereas a soda could be a complement. Surplus is a key concept for both consumers and producers. Consumer surplus is the marginal benefit of a good or service minus the price paid for it. Producer surplus is the price of a good minus the cost of producing it. When consumers pay less for a good than they expected to pay, they have a consumer surplus. When producers charge more for a good than it cost to make, they have a producer surplus.

In an efficient marketplace, the quantities of goods and services produced meet the level consumers want. Market equilibrium exists when marginal benefits equal marginal costs. Either underproduction or overproduction can disrupt balance and reduce market efficiency. The resulting losses are known as deadweight losses. Markets should be both efficient and fair; however, there are conflicting ideas on what defines fairness. Some economists believe fairness is based in the rules of economics, whereas others believe fairness resides in the results.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Measure the price elasticity of supply and demand
Measure the cross-elasticity and income elasticity of demand
Calculate changes in consumer and producer surplus
Evaluate alternatives for fair and efficient allocation of scarce resources

• Changes In Supply and Demand

Gross Domestic Product

The gross domestic product (GDP)for the United States is the market value of all finished goods and services produced domestically over a specified period of time. GDP measures only goods produced domestically, unlike gross national product (GNP), which measures goods produced overseas for domestic companies. The Bureau of Economic Analysis measures GDP in the United States using expenditure information, income information, and similar economic data to reach its conclusions. You measure growth through measurements such as real GDP and you use measurements such as real GDP per person to measure the standard of living. You can calculate these figures domestically and abroad as a means of measuring growth against other economies.

The Consumer Price Index (CPI) measures the buying patterns of urban consumers—specifically, the average prices they pay for a specified list of goods. Although it does not measure all goods and services, or even the entire consumer market, it helps show how much money people need to spend to maintain a given standard of living. Even without providing a complete picture, the CPI gives insights into cost of living, inflation, and deflation. Inflation occurs when prices increase faster than the cost of living. While it is normal for prices of goods and services to rise over a period of years along with income, inflation becomes a problem when prices rise faster than income.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain the measurement of gross domestic product
Describe the calculation methods for real and nominal gross domestic product
Compare standards of living across different countries using gross domestic product as the measure
Describe the calculation and limitations of the Consumer Price Index
Explain the economic significance of inflation

• Gross Domestic Product

Jobs, Employment, and Output

Average unemployment over the past 80 years has been approximately 5.7%. Unemployment is measured against the total labor force. It can be related to economic conditions or to normal business turnover; it can also be seasonal or cyclical. "Full" employment is when there is no cyclical unemployment. Even under the best circumstances there will always be some people who are unemployed, which is known as the natural rate of unemployment.

Population and demographics changes are responsible for much of the growth. The population has risen and there are more two-income families today than there were in the 1960s. There are still fewer women in the workforce than men, although the number of women has risen proportionally. Race, age, and education levels all play a role in the employment levels and the types of jobs people hold. Unemployment can be related to natural turnover, changes in the workplace such as new technologies, or the time of year such as the demand for retail workers during December. Cyclical unemployment occurs when employment rates rise and fall based on economic conditions. If this were the only type of unemployment, theoretically there could be times of true full employment. However, even in the best of times, there is some degree of joblessness. Real gross domestic product (GDP) can be correlated to employment levels. When it rises, employment rises. But when it falls, unemployment rises. Potential GDP is the measurement of real GDP when the economy is at full employment.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Summarize labor market indicators
Explain the variance in labor market performance
Explain the concept of full employment
Describe how economists define the natural unemployment rate
Describe the correlation between unemployment and real gross domestic product
Explain the concept of potential gross domestic product

• Jobs, Employment, and Output

Economic Growth

Economic growth is a sustained expansion of the economy, not the cyclical expansion that accompanies an economic boom or the recovery following a recession. You measure growth through measurements such as real GDP. You use measurements such as real GDP per person to measure the standard of living. You can calculate these figures not only domestically but also for other countries as a means of measuring growth against other economies.

There are a number of theories that seek to explain economic growth. According to classical growth theory, economic growth is dependent on limited resources, and that limitation eventually causes growth to end. Neoclassical growth theory views technological change as the catalyst for economic growth, which will result in higher real GDP per person. New growth theory states that unlimited consumer desires spark innovative ways to increase productivity and perpetuate economic growth. The quantity of labor growth and the growth of labor productivity are both factors in determining the growth of real GDP. In turn, these factors are linked to population growth, workforce participation, technological advances, and physical capital such as factories, machines, and tools. Economic growth also needs economic freedom such as individual free choice, private property rights, and free markets, if it wants to thrive.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Solve for the economic growth rate of a given year
Determine the key sources of economic growth
Explain the main theories of economic growth
Explain government actions undertaken to enhance economic growth

• Economic Growth

Finance, Saving, and Investment

Financial institutions perform a variety of tasks ranging from taking care of everyday banking needs to handling long-term investments and pensions. Financial institutions include investment banks, commercial banks, government-sponsored mortgage lenders, pension funds, and insurance companies. Investment banks issue and sell stocks and bonds. The Federal Reserve is responsible for regulating and supervising banks. Its current chairman Ben Bernanke is not affiliated with any bank, though he manages the money supply and interest rates. Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, both government-backed mortgage lenders, will buy mortgages from banks and resell them as mortgage-backed securities.

Commercial banks are what most consumers think of when they use the term "bank." Consumer banks handle daily transactions, checking accounts, and credit and debit cards. The money that financial institutions lend out is known as loanable funds. Loanable funds can finance business investments, international investments or loans, and even government budget deficits. The amount of money lent depends upon the condition of the economy and how much profit a given loan can generate. Lenders want to ensure that they charge enough interest on loans to make them profitable, and they also want to ensure that there is a good chance the loans will be repaid. During economic downturns, loans are harder to obtain and include strict requirements to be eligible. When the government runs a surplus, there is more money available and interest rates will decline. More money will be available for loans, although fewer people will need loans. When there is a deficit, the money supply tightens and interest rates for loans will rise. Even though more people may desire loans, there will be less money available for lending.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Outline key financial markets and institutions
Determine how supply and demand of loanable funds affect interest rates
Explain the impact of government budget surpluses and deficits

• Finance, Saving, and Investment

U. S. Monetary System

Money is used as a unit of exchange when you want to acquire a good or service. It also serves as a unit of account. Goods and services are assigned a monetary value that you pay with actual money when you make a purchase. Currency, or cash, is money. Credit cards, debit cards, and checks are not truly money but rather means of authorizing funds to be made available to those from whom you are buying something. Money can be saved to use later. People save money in banks, and the banks use the money they take in as deposits for investing. The money they invest is used to make more money for loans, interest to depositors, and other services. The banking industry has consolidated in recent years in part because interstate banking laws now allow banks to have branches in multiple states.

The Federal Reserve System, or the nation's central bank, regulates banks in the United States. The "Fed" regulates banking activity and influences the national money supply. It is organized into 12 financial regions, each of which has its own directors. Monetary policy comes from the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), which includes the Fed chair, board of governors, and the leaders of the regions. The Fed sets monetary policy by influencing the interest rate and the amount of money in circulation. It also determines how much banks need to hold as reserves and it sets the interest rates banks pay to borrow money.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the function of money
Explain the functions of banks
Explain the role of the Federal Reserve System
Determine how the Federal Reserve influences the creation of money through the banking system

• U. S. Monetary System

Money, Interest, and Inflation

We use money every day—to buy groceries, gas, movie tickets, and whatever else we may need. Money plays a vital role in the economy. For this reason, economists study the market for money. People who hold on to their money in the form of cash are subject to the opportunity cost of lost interest on an investment. The amount of cash people hold depends on the nominal interest rate. If the rate rises, the quantity of money demanded drops, and if the rate drops, the quantity of money demanded increases. The quantity of money demanded rises with the price level. It increases if more is needed to make purchases.

The nominal interest rate is what individuals earn when they invest in tangible assets such as land or equipment or financial assets such as stocks or bonds. An increase in the quantity of money results in a lower nominal interest rate. Over the long term, the nominal interest rate will return to its original value because the value of money is dropping. When the value of money declines, the price level rises. Inflation represents a rise in the price level. For individuals, inflation means not only higher prices but also reduced buying power. They may incur "shoe leather" costs, so called because one ostensibly wears out one's shoes looking for bargains. They may have to pay additional taxes on the extra interest they make on savings and investments. For their part, banks are less likely to lend money because they are unable to make a profit when inflation decreases the value of money.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Determine how supply and demand of money influence money market equilibrium
Describe the link between the money supply and the price level in the long run
Describe the costs of inflation and the importance of price stability

• Money, Interest, and Inflation

Aggregate Supply and Aggregate Demand

Both aggregate supply (AS) and aggregate demand (AD) help economists understand short-term influences on the economy. They do this with an AS-AD model, which shows how the output of goods and services, and the overall level of prices, can adjust to balance aggregate supply and aggregate demand. The AS-AD model shows how the price level and real GDP are figured in the short term. When potential GDP increases, aggregate supply also increases in the short term. For any given price level, the aggregate supply of goods and services is higher. Aggregate demand is the relationship between the quantity of real GDP demanded and the price level. Assuming all elements are equal, the higher the price level, the smaller the quantity of real GDP demanded. Real GDP comprises consumption, investment, government purchases, and net exports. Any factor that increases one of these components will increase aggregate demand. Anything that reduces any of these elements will decrease aggregate demand.

The business cycle occurs when the quantity of real GDP demanded equals the quantity of real GDP supplied at the point of intersection of the AD curve and the AS curve. A simpler explanation is that the business cycle consists of a period of growth and expansion, followed by a period of recession and contraction, followed by another period of growth, and so on. These periods may last a few months or several years.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain the determinants of aggregate supply
Explain the determinants of aggregate demand
Determine how changes in aggregate demand and aggregate supply affect the business cycle

• Aggregate Supply and Aggregate Demand

The Expenditure Multiplier

On February 21, 2009, President Obama signed into law the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. This new law was in response to the economic crisis facing the nation. Its primary goals were to create new jobs and to spur economic activity through tax cuts and new spending totaling nearly $800 billion dollars. The government expected these funds would stimulate even more spending and economic activity. In other words, the government expected a multiplier effect.

The expenditure multiplier is the amount by which a change in any component of autonomous expenditure is multiplied to figure the change generated in equilibrium expenditure and real GDP. The multiplier's size depends on the marginal propensity to consume or to import and on marginal tax rates. Moreover, the aggregate expenditure model can be used to track fluctuations in economic activity around potential GDP. The aggregate demand (AD) curve is the relationship between the aggregate quantity of goods and services demanded and the price level. You can derive the AD curve from the aggregate expenditure model by observing changes in the aggregate expenditure line and equilibrium expenditure. A rise in the price level decreases aggregate planned expenditure, which shifts the aggregate curve downward. A drop in the price level increases aggregate planned expenditure and shifts the aggregate curve upward.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Analyze autonomous expenditure and the effect of real gross domestic product on induced expenditure
Explain the link between gross domestic product and equilibrium expenditure
Explain the expenditure multiplier
Calculate the aggregate demand curve from equilibrium expenditure

• The Expenditure Multiplier

Explaining The Short- Run Policy Trade-Off

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Analyze autonomous expenditure and the effect of real gross domestic product on induced expenditure
Explain the link between gross domestic product and equilibrium expenditure
Explain the expenditure multiplier
Calculate the aggregate demand curve from equilibrium expenditure

• Explaining The Short- Run Policy Trade-Off

Fiscal Policy

The federal budget includes the annual expenditures and tax revenues of the U.S. government. Each year, the budget must be approved by Congress and signed into law by the president. Two types of fiscal policy guide the budget: discretionary, which is generated by deliberate Congressional action, and automatic, which is influenced by the state of the economy. The government can use a variety of fiscal policy approaches to thwart recession-related monetary challenges or to lessen inflation-related challenges. The stimulus package enacted to counter the effects of the financial crisis of 2008 is an example of such government action. That stimulus package, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, is an example of the government using fiscal policy to stimulate aggregate demand.

Proponents of this type of program argue that the benefits to the economy have a multiplier effect that takes the benefits even farther. Opponents assert that the positive effects are only temporary, and the long-term effects of carrying more debt will be a larger deficit to pay back. "Supply-side" economists, on the other hand, believe the government can use fiscal policy to stimulate aggregate supply. Supply-siders argue, for example, that tax cuts will benefit the economy over the long term because they will spur new investments, new jobs, and increase consumer spending—even though they will translate into lower tax revenue for the government. Opponents of the supply-side argument assert that the benefits do not distribute equally or with as much enthusiasm as their supporters believe.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain how the federal budget process effects tax revenues, outlays, deficits, and debts
Describe demand-side effects of fiscal policy
Describe supply-side effects of fiscal policy

• Fiscal Policy

Monetary Policy

The United States relies on the Federal Reserve System, called the "Fed," to set monetary policy through its Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC). The FOMC's job is to ensure that the economy is functioning as efficiently as possible, especially given the many variables that affect its direction. That means maintaining financial stability and keeping inflation in check. The federal funds rate is the FOMC's monetary policy instrument. It also makes use of open market operations, which are the purchase or sale in the open market of government securities. The Fed will adopt an expansionary monetary policy during a recession, which lowers the federal funds rate through an open market purchase of government securities. It will adopt a contractionary monetary policy when inflation is the potential problem, which involves open market operations that raise the federal funds rate. Transmission of either policy can take several months or even a year from implementation to fully do its job, which means the Fed has to try to predict economic shifts for the long term.

There is argument over whether a central bank such as the Fed benefits more from using a rules-based monetary strategy or a discretionary strategy. A rules-based strategy follows a specific rule in making and setting policy. Proponents argue this is more reliable, while opponents claim it is too inflexible. Discretionary policy relies on the expertise of the bank's policymakers to make decisions. Proponents assert this adds flexibility and expertise, while opponents contend it could lead to incompetent decisions or even corruption.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the goals of U.S. monetary policy and the methods used to achieve those goals
Describe the transmission process of monetary policy
Compare monetary policy strategies

• Monetary Policy

International Economic Policy

In 2005, Thomas Friedman published The World Is Flat, which became an international bestseller. In the book, Friedman doesn't deny the reality that the globe is round, but rather he argues that during the twentieth century the world became more highly integrated, both politically and economically. Friedman shows that this new flat world has important implications for countries, companies, communities, individuals, and governments. The flattening of the world means that economic policy has implications for our local markets and for markets across the globe. One nation's economy is part of the bigger international economy. Nowhere is this idea more obvious than in the financial matters of the European Union.

As several Eurozone countries struggle with austerity measures, discontent with European economic policies threatens the union. Even with the benefits of global trade, governments often try to protect domestic companies from too much competition from overseas in the form of tariffs, import quotas, and various regulations. Taxes, fees, and restrictions keep overseas products from gaining too strong a foothold in the domestic market. Foreign countries can enact restrictions and fees of their own. Ultimately, consumers suffer because they have to pay more. This is one reason why many economists argue that free trade is a better option in the long run. Foreign exchange rates are liable to rise or fall on account of a variety of factors, such as changes in interest rates or the amount of currency in circulation. These rates can make a steady climb up or down, or they can go through periods of volatility.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the role of markets within global trade to create net gains for the economy
Describe the impact of international trade restrictions
Describe the justification for international trade restrictions
Explain the concept of balance of payments accounts
Analyze fluctuations in exchange rates

• International Economic Policy

Microeconomics

The Economic Way of Thinking

Businesses and the government follow a similar process on a larger scale. Goods are produced through capital (including factories and tools), natural resources, and human labor. Resources are finite, and even in a strong and vibrant economy choices must be made about which goods will be produced. If one product is in higher demand than another, that product will be produced in greater quantity. The opportunity cost of producing the more popular product is that a smaller quantity of the less popular product will be produced.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the basic economic questions that any society must answer
Explain the core ideas that combine to make up the economic way of thinking
Explain the way the three basic economic questions influence goods and services in the global economy
Describe how specialization and trade affect the expansion of production possibilities
Apply the concept of opportunity cost to the tradeoffs we make when dealing with scarcity

• The Economic Way of Thinking

Supply and Demand

Quantity demanded and quantity supplied represent specific amounts at a specific price. Any price variation will affect quantity demanded and quantity supplied. The other varieties of apples are substitute goods if demand for a single variety outweighs all others. The expectation of future price increases, or a change in personal buying power or personal preferences, can all affect demand. Issues that affect supply include the cost of substitute goods, the cost of producing the goods in question, and worker productivity. Market equilibrium is the state at which the quantity of goods supplied equals the quantity of goods demanded. A surplus results when the quantity of goods supplied is higher than the quantity of goods demanded. When the reverse is true (lower quantity of goods supplied), the result is a shortage. Despite the complexity of markets, market equilibrium stays relatively steady in most cases. Whenever a surplus or a shortage occurs, prices tend to adjust accordingly, which counters any imbalance that would otherwise put either producers or consumers at a disadvantage.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain what causes changes in demand and quantities demanded
Explain what causes changes in supply and quantities supplied
Analyze the effects of changes in supply and demand on market equilibrium

• Supply and Demand

Changes In Supply and Demand

Surplus is a key concept for both consumers and producers. Consumer surplus is the marginal benefit of a good or service minus the price paid for it. Producer surplus is the price of a good minus the cost of producing it. When consumers pay less for a good than they expected to pay, they have a consumer surplus. When producers charge more for a good than it cost to make, they have a producer surplus. In an efficient marketplace, the quantities of goods and services produced meet the level consumers want. Market equilibrium exists when marginal benefits equal marginal costs. Either underproduction or overproduction can disrupt balance and reduce market efficiency. The resulting losses are known as deadweight losses. Markets should be both efficient and fair; however, there are conflicting ideas on what defines fairness. Some economists believe fairness is based in the rules of economics, whereas others believe fairness resides in the results.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Measure the price elasticity of supply and demand
Measure the cross-elasticity and income elasticity of demand
Calculate changes in consumer and producer surplus
Evaluate alternatives for fair and efficient allocation of scarce resources

• Changes In Supply and Demand

The Economic Problem

When a good is produced, the cost is not just the resources used for that good but also that those resources cannot be used to produce a different good. This is the opportunity cost, and how high it goes depends on whether the good being produced is more or less valuable than the good not being produced. A production possibilities frontier (PPF) model allows for the plotting of several points representing different combinations of goods and services; the goal is to determine which combination is the most cost-efficient. Goods and services can be consumer-based, capital goods, government goods, and export goods. They are produced through capital, including the machinery, tools, and factories where production takes place; natural resources; human labor; and a spirit of entrepreneurship.

Economic growth can be spurred through technological innovations, research and development, and education and training. Ideally, companies try to reach a state of allocative efficiency, in which the goods or services produced are at optimal proportions for maximizing profit. Once this balance is defined, producers need to be aware that producing more of a good erodes efficiency because it will mean producing less of another good. Overproduction of one good will result in the underproduction of another, and both overproduction and underproduction are obstacles to efficiency. Excessive costs also take their toll on efficiency. Staying close to the numbers of efficient allocation will allow a company to maintain efficiency and maximize profitability.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Determine opportunity cost
Explain the factors which lead to expansion of production possibilities and economic growth
Explain the components of an efficient allocation
Describe obstacles to efficiency

• The Economic Problem

Effects of Government Actions

Price floors and ceilings may be necessary, but they can create inefficiencies in the marketplace. Rent control is a price ceiling designed to protect people from exorbitant rents. However, it keeps rents artificially low and ultimately results in a shortage of available apartments because turnover is limited. The minimum wage, the lowest rate at which companies are allowed to pay employees, is a classic price floor. Minimum wage protects workers from being paid less than a guaranteed amount for their work.

From an economic standpoint, however, if a minimum wage is set above the equilibrium wage rate, the quantity of labor supplied is less than the quantity of labor demanded. The resulting impact is that the minimum wage can actually increase unemployment numbers. Governments provide subsidies to producers in certain industries to lower production costs and guarantee prices. In 2011, the United States spent $15 billion on farm subsidies while the European Union spent €55 billion. The idea behind price supports, import tariffs, and quotas is that domestic producers need to be protected. The problem is when those measures encourage producers to overproduce. Surpluses offer no benefit to the market and discourage competition even from those who might be allowed to compete. Governments are generally reluctant to discontinue subsidies because they anticipate a strong backlash from those who have benefited from them.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain the impacts of price ceilings on efficiency and fairness
Explain the impacts of price floors on efficiency and fairness
Explain the impacts of subsidies on efficiency and fairness

• Effects of Government Actions

Tax Impact

Most people are familiar with the variety of taxes citizens are required to pay income tax, Social Security tax, real estate tax, and sales tax, to name a few. Although taxes may be necessary, it is often argued that they are not efficient under current federal and state tax codes. Consider sales tax as an example. A sales tax effectively raises the listed price on a product, which hurts consumers and sellers. However, there is also inefficiency in how and where taxes are imposed. In the United States, not every state has a sales tax on clothing. It is quite common for people who live in a state with a sales tax on clothing but near a state without one to cross the state border and do their clothes shopping in the neighboring state. This makes shopping more inconvenient for the consumer. It also makes it harder for sellers to compete when they must attach a sales tax to their wares.

In the United States, citizens pay an income tax and payroll tax, which includes withholding and Social Security. While workers do not pay all of these taxes themselves, employers deduct certain taxes from their pay. The result is still a lower net amount in the paycheck. Income and payroll taxes make it more expensive for employers to hire people, which can often cause employers to hire fewer employees. Those who are hired see less tangible income on a weekly basis because their checks are smaller after tax deductions. There have been discussions on how to make taxes of all kinds fairer to the public. The problem is that the human element makes it difficult to impose taxes that are objectively fair. Issues such as age, health, and family size all enter into the discussion. Moreover, political leaders are highly reluctant to do anything to the tax system that will be construed as raising taxes.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain how sales taxes influence prices and quantities
Explain the effect of taxes on wages, employment, employers, and workers
Explain concepts of fairness in the tax system

• Tax Impact

International Trade and Trade Restrictions

One of the chief benefits of international trade is that it allows producers and consumers to seek out the best items for the best prices. It also allows countries with limited or restricted resources to engage in trade with countries that possess abundant resources. Countries can identify where they have an absolute advantage in production of a particular good and where they have a comparative advantage. Global trade is in many ways more efficient than domestic trade. Still, not everyone benefits from successful international trade. Producers who already have high costs will not benefit much from overseas trade. Nor will consumers who will have to pay higher prices for certain goods. While not all prices rise on all goods, consumers who witness a price increase may shift their buying patterns.

Among the more common trade restrictions are tariffs, import quotas, and trade subsidies. All of these are meant to protect domestic markets. Although restrictions benefit both governments and producers, they make goods and services more expensive for consumers. Many economists believe that as consumers are pushed out of the market, it will ultimately hurt producers, who will see their profits diminish. Sometimes the restrictions can be much more damaging than that. The U.S. Congress passed the Smoot-Hawley bill in 1930 to impose high tariffs with its trading partners. Its original aim was to protect American workers. However, it was so restrictive that it crippled production overseas, and American unemployment rose to 26%.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain the function of trade in global markets
Describe how global trade affects participant gains and losses
Analyze the influence of restrictions on trade
Describe the justification for international trade restrictions

• International Trade and Trade Restrictions

Examining Public Goods

A good or service that is available to everyone is called a public good. Public goods are distinguished from private goods, or those that benefit only the individual, by the qualities of excludability and rivalry. Private goods are excludable because only those who choose to receive them can get them, such as ticketholders to a theater performance. They are also considered rival goods because only one person at a time can use them, such as a meal in a restaurant. Public goods and services are available to everyone, not just the people who have contributed to them. Many of these goods are subsidized with taxes, but even if you pay no taxes you can still ride on public roads, attend public schools, and receive police protection if in danger.

One problem with financing public goods is that municipalities often overestimate how much to invest and they invest beyond what is cost-effective. Building a dam to protect against flooding is a wise and often necessary action. However, if the dam is built significantly higher than necessary, the extra money spent on that project will mean that other public goods that may be equally important will not receive adequate funding. Private goods that also benefit the public, or external benefits, are called mixed goods. Education and health care are mixed goods. The benefits of mixed goods are expressed as marginal social benefit, which is the sum of marginal private benefit and marginal external benefit.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Differentiate between private goods, public goods, common resources, and externalities
Explain how to provide an efficient quantity of public goods
Describe how the delivery of public goods and services can lead to external benefits

• Examining Public Goods

Dealing With Negative Externalities

External costs are costs that affect third parties other than the producers or the consumers. The marginal production cost carried by third parties is called the marginal external cost. Producers face what is called the marginal private cost for each additional unit they produce. The sum of marginal external cost and marginal private cost is marginal social cost, or the cost to society at large for additional production. When necessary, governments can intervene to ensure that resources are allocated efficiently. Consider pollution and automobiles. In a large city with many taxicabs, local government can restrict the number of taxis permitted on city streets and require drivers to obtain special licensing. Without restrictions, anyone could drive a taxi, and the result would be increased traffic, noise, and pollution.

Governments can set limits, levy taxes, or create special permits (called cap and trade) that set limits, but they offer companies some degree of flexibility in reaching those limits. Flexibility in dealing with common property is an issue of constant concern as natural resources become increasingly precious. Common property, such as fields where cattle graze, can benefit many until it is exploited. In the American West, cattle owners allowed so much grazing of public lands that the grass supply was depleted in many areas, making the herds unsustainable. This issue, called the “tragedy of the commons,” can be controlled through use of quotas and limits, taxes, or conversion of public property into private property when necessary.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Analyze the relationship between negative externalities and inefficient overproduction
Describe how government actions can lead to more efficient outcomes when negative externalities are present
Explain methods of managing possible solutions for the tragedy of the commons

• Dealing With Negative Externalities

Consumer Choice

The process of setting a budget is simple enough: start with a fixed amount of money and determine which goods and services you want to buy, and then determine which combination of goods and services are the most cost-effective. If the amount of money in the budget changes, the combination of goods and services will also change. If the price of one or more goods or services changes, it will alter opportunity costs and the combination of purchases will be affected. The satisfaction of purchasing one item often rises if you have the opportunity to purchase another one of the same item; this is known as marginal utility. It affects what you purchase; if you prefer coffee to soda, you may decline a soda for a second cup of coffee.

Marginal utility does tend to diminish as consumption rises; a second cup of coffee is likely more welcome than a fourth. A consumer may in fact be equally satisfied with a variety of combinations of goods; the pack of real preference can be tracked with what economists call an indifference curve. It is important to understand the difference between value, price, and cost. Price is the actual amount of money that a person pays, while cost is a measure of what was given up or what the buyer did not buy so as to afford the item purchased. Value represents the worth of the item to the purchaser. Some items, such as basic necessities, may have a low marginal value but a high total value. This is why water costs a few cents a gallon and why gold can cost more than $1,500 an ounce.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Determine a budget for personal consumption
Explain the correlation between marginal utility and consumer demand curve
Apply marginal utility theory to the paradox of value
Derive a demand curve utilizing consumers' indifference curve and their marginal rate of substitution

• Consumer Choice

Short-Run and Long-Run Costs

Businesses all share a primary goal of creating value. The best way to create value depends on whether one is an accountant or an economist. Accountants are more concerned with the outlays involved in costs, while economists are more focused on the value of the opportunity costs. The opportunity costs can be equally as valuable or problematic to a business as “accounting profit.” A company can earn an accounting profit yet still face financial challenges because the revenue stream simply cannot cover all of the company's opportunity costs. Costs can either be fixed or variable. Fixed costs are generally examined in short-run planning. Most costs incurred in the short run are fixed, such as rent, utilities, and salaries.

Over the long term, costs are subject to more variables such as changes in supply or demand or price increases. Longer-term costs can also include large investments such as the costs involved in building a new facility. All of these costs are variable because they are subject to unforeseen changes. Total costs can be measured by adding total fixed costs and total variable costs. One method for companies to increase profits is to increase production. When output is greater than input, the result is what economists call economies of scale. Output can also increase proportionally with input, or constant returns to scale, which results in increased production. Diseconomies of scale occur when input is greater than output, resulting in reduced cost-efficiency and lower profits.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain how to determine a firm's cost of production and economic profit
Correlate the firm's output and the quantity of labor in the short run
Explain the influence of costs in the short run on a firm's output
Calculate a long-run average cost curve

• Short-Run and Long-Run Costs

Looking At Perfect Competition

In perfect competition, many sellers offer identical goods to buyers, with no single seller possessing an advantage. Anyone can enter a perfectly competitive market because there are no restrictions or barriers. The production of milk is a good example of this principle. Sellers and buyers tend to be equally knowledgeable about prices. This contrasts with other types of markets. Monopoly is when one single firm sells a specific product that has no close substitutes. Oligopoly occurs when several interdependent firms control the production and sale of a specific good. Monopolistic competition is when a large number of firms, such as restaurants, compete by producing slightly different products. A company in a state of perfect competition is a price taker—it does not set its own prices. Its marginal revenue is equal to market price. A perfectly competitive company that wants to maximize profit must produce a quantity of output in which economic profit is at its maximum. When marginal revenue exceeds marginal cost, the company can increase profits by increasing output. When marginal cost exceeds marginal revenue, the company can decrease output to increase revenue. Perfect competition causes marginal benefit to equal marginal cost, which makes it efficient. Demand and supply can change, which can affect price, quantity, and profit.

In the long run, a company makes a normal profit but no economic profit. Economic profits and losses cause the market to change not only because of the numbers themselves but also because companies will either enter or depart the market. New firms enter when profits rise, which lowers market price and reduces profits for everyone. Companies that leave the market during times of loss, however, can help the market because their departure reduces competition and allows prices to rise. That translates into higher profits for the remaining companies.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe how a firm in perfect competition makes profit-maximizing decisions
Describe how perfectly competitive markets determine output, price, and economic profit in the short run
Explain how output, price, and profit are determined in perfectly competitive markets in the long run

• Looking At Perfect Competition

Understanding Monopoly Markets

To be considered a monopoly, a company has to be the sole seller of a product or service that has no close substitutes. Not only that, there have to be barriers that prevent others from entering into the market to compete. Those barriers can be that the company is meeting the total demand for its product at a better price than two or more firms could or that the company owns so much of the natural resources needed for creating its product that other companies cannot afford to enter the market. Certain utilities are good examples of monopolies. We generally don't have competing companies supply the water that comes out of the tap or the natural gas that runs a home furnace. Some monopolies are able to charge a set price for goods and services, such as the U.S. Postal Service.

Monopoly is the opposite of perfect competition, which includes numerous sellers offering identical products to buyers, no market-entry barriers, no one firm having an advantage, and sellers and buyers being equally knowledgeable about prices. Monopolies practice price discrimination, which means finding people in identifiable and separate groups to whom they can market, such as senior citizens who get discounts on numerous services. Sometimes a company will buy out all of the competitive businesses in a community and form a monopoly. This will often result in higher prices and reduced supply. To counter the effects of this type of monopoly, governments regulate certain businesses such as utilities. However, sometimes governments push for deregulation, as with the airline industry in the late 1970s.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe monopoly development and monopoly price-setting strategies
Describe how a single-price monopoly makes output and price decisions
Compare a monopoly and perfect competition in equilibrium
Describe the effect of different types of price discrimination on monopoly profits
Analyze different methods of monopoly regulation

• Understanding Monopoly Markets

Monopolistic Competition and Oligopoly

In monopolistic competition, a large number of firms create slightly different products. Restaurants are a good example; there may be hundreds in a community, but each offers its own variety in cuisine, atmosphere, and price. One common measure of monopolistic competition is whether the four largest firms in a market take up 60% or more of that market. Companies in monopolistic competition struggle to earn economic profit over the long term. If they do well, other companies will enter the market and dilute market share. Many firms in monopolistic competition try to differentiate their products through packaging and advertising. These are generally expensive options, but if orchestrated right, they can increase profits considerably.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the market structure which characterizes monopolistic competition
Explain the profit-maximizing decisions firms make in monopolistic competition
Explain the importance of advertising in industries characterized by monopolistic competition
Explain the market conditions of oligopoly and the decisions made by firms in oligopoly
Analyze judgments faced by oligopolists using game theory

• Monopolistic Competition and Oligopoly

Networking

The productivity of labor, not the quantity, generally determines wages. Skilled workers who can do a particular job can raise their wages if they increase their productivity. That said, they may be subject to shifts in the market—perhaps demand will fall or a technological innovation will mean fewer workers are needed. When that happens, the number of workers needed and the salaries they receive can decrease. At the most extreme, the percentage of unemployed workers continues to rise. The number of available workers changes constantly due to a variety of factors such as retirements, immigrants, and the entry of college graduates into the workforce. All of these factors affect not only how many people are available but also how many jobs can be filled and at what levels. Changes in education levels and changes in personal work preferences, such as whether to work full or part-time, will also have an impact.

The role of labor unions has traditionally been to protect workers' rights. Increasing competition from nonunionized workers who are willing to work for less money sometimes means that the unions have to make concessions to remain competitive. Markets are affected by the availability of more than just labor, including capital, land, and natural resources. All of these are finite resources, so it is important for companies to acquire and use them efficiently if they wish to achieve growth. Some resources, most notably oil, can be particularly volatile commodities. The overall net worth of individuals has shifted in the past decade so that the gap between rich and poor has grown in the United States. Economic changes can account for disparities, but changes in the level and duration of poverty are of particular concern to economists who fear that long-term poverty can have a much more serious impact on society.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain how marginal product influences the demand for factors of production
Analyze the important factors which influence the labor market and how they impact supply and demand for labor
Explain how rates of return on capital, land, and nonrenewable natural resources are determined
Articulate economic definitions of poverty and inequality in the U.S.
Explain how government redistributes income to address economic inequality and poverty

• Distribution of Income

Psychology

The Field of Psychology

Perhaps you want to change the way you look or behave by losing weight or quitting smoking. Knowing some of the basic concepts of the field of psychology can help you reach your goals. Psychology can help you understand yourself better, including your motivations, inherent tendencies, and social behavior. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It describes, explains, and predicts behavior. The field of psychology evolved because of the inherent human desire to know and understand how the mind works.

The field formally began in Germany in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt attempted to apply scientific principles to the study of the human mind and created objective introspection. Other important scientists took up the study, including William James. James proposed functionalism, the way that the mind allows individuals to adapt. Sigmund Freud proposed the existence of an unconscious (unaware) mind using a process called psychoanalysis to explain how threatening urges or desires from the unconscious can infiltrate awareness and affect one's thinking and behavior. Other early theories include Gestalt psychology, which looks at the mind as a whole rather than in parts, and behaviorism, which theorizes that all human behaviors are acquired through conditioning due to interaction with one's environment. Today, seven modern perspectives are used to explain all human behavior and mental processes. The most important include the behavioral, humanistic, and cognitive perspectives.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define psychology
Discuss the origins of psychology
Discuss key issues and perspectives regarding the field of psychology
Identify scientific and research methods used in psychology

• The Field of Psychology

Biological Basis of Behavior, Sensation, and Perception

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define and list the functions of the different parts of the nervous system and their role in behavior
List the functions of the eyes, ears, and skin and their role in behavior
Discuss sensation and perception and their role in everyday life

• Biological Basis of Behavior, Sensation, and Perception

Consciousness

The various states of sleep can affect nighttime dreams and the daytime ability to focus. Sleep and dreams are examples of altered states of consciousness, where you have mental and perceptual experiences different from those you experience in an alert, fully awake mental state. Another form of altered mental state is hypnosis, a state of consciousness in which a person is especially responsive or sensitive to suggestion. Other altered states can be accessed using psychoactive drugs, which are drugs that alter mood and perception. These include various depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens such as marijuana, LSD, PCP, and Ecstasy, each of which interferes with mental and perceptual processes.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the nature of sleep and sleep disorders
Examine the methods and practice of hypnosis
Discuss the role of drugs in hypnosis and altering consciousness

• Consciousness

Learning With Change, Experience, and Memory

Conditioning can be broken down into two main types. Classical conditioning occurs when someone or something, such as an animal, learns to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that would normally produce such a response. Psychologist Ivan Pavlov's research, where he taught a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell by associating the sound with food, is a common example. Operant conditioning uses rewards and punishments to encourage certain behaviors. Memory involves another kind of learning that also uses reinforcement to strengthen its effect. All models of memory involve putting information into your brain, or encoding it; retaining information, or storing it in your brain; and retrieving, or accessing, stored information. Information must be "rehearsed" to increase the likelihood of its retrieval.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the nature, principles, process, and neural basis of behavioral learning
Define classical conditioning
Describe the nature, principles, process, and neural basis of classical conditioning
Identify the methods of construction of schemas and their use
Define operant conditioning
Describe the nature, principles, process, and neural basis of operant conditioning
Define memory and the different types of memory
Discuss the role of the different memory systems
Discuss forgetting and some of the views related to it

• Learning With Change, Experience, and Memory

Cognition and Intelligence

Cognition is the term used to describe the mental process by which the brain acquires knowledge and understands it. Cognition incorporates all thoughts, experiences, and senses. You use mental images to help you remember and conceptualize. Concepts are ideas that help you identify and "place" new information. You also solve problems using cognition and use an approach called trial and error when trying out different solutions to a problem. Sometimes you follow a certain set process, called an algorithm. Using heuristics to solve a problem applies knowledge gleaned from past experience to a new situation

. All ways of thinking involve a relationship between language and thought. Each influences the other because you use words to form your ideas. Psychologists sometimes study intelligence, or your ability to learn from your experiences, acquire knowledge, and use your resources effectively. However, psychologists now theorize multiple intelligences, including creativity, which recombines old ideas or generates new ones to solve problems.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define the processes of thinking and reasoning
Identify the different methods of problem solving
Identify strategies and rules for decision making
Examine language as a communication tool
Describe human intelligence and the different methods of defining and measuring intelligence

• Cognition and Intelligence

Human Development

Susanna is a 42-year-old single mother who lives with her two-year-old son, 11-year-old daughter, 22-year-old son, and 86-year-old grandmother. Susanna sometimes feels as if she deals with all of life's struggles from birth to death. Her little boy is just beginning his life, but her grandmother is approaching the end of life. At this stage of her own life, Susanna is dealing with the needs of a toddler, a preadolescent who is fast approaching puberty, a recent college graduate caught up in worries about his first job, and an aging senior citizen. In addition, Susanna wonders if she should make a career change, go back to school, or stay where she is. Susanna's family is a microcosm of the span of human development. The daily occurrences and interactions in their home illustrate that the only real constant in human development is change. Psychologists might try to analyze Susanna's dilemmas by looking at genetics, or the science of heredity, to develop an understanding of how inherited tendencies could be influencing Susanna's family members' personalities and behavior choices. Psychologists would also analyze the family environment, searching for factors involving daily activities and interactions with others that may impact the behaviors and decisions of Suzanna and her family. In doing so, psychologists would be investigating the nature-versus-nurture question.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the changes, characteristics, and challenges related to each developmental phase
Discuss the various theories related to each developmental phase

• Human Development

Motivation and Emotion

Motivation is an inherent, instinctive drive, but different people react in their own way. What about you? What motivates you to get up in the morning? How do your motivations relate to your emotions? Abraham Maslow proposed several levels of needs that a person seeks to fulfill, starting with basic survival needs and increasing to personal fulfillment, or self-actualization. Other common human needs include the need for achievement, the need for affiliation, or acceptance by others, and a need for power or control. Differing needs and motivations influence personalities, behaviors, and social interactions.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the theories and perspectives on motivation
Identify the different types of motivation and their nature
Describe emotions - the basis, biological basis, and their expression
Discuss the causes and effects of personal happiness and individual differences in perspectives on emotions

• Motivation and Emotion

Sexuality and Gender

Your gender—that is, your identification as being male or female—affects how you think about yourself and how you interact with others, including friends, family, and romantic connections. Your sexual behavior allows you to enjoy many relationships in your life, from friendly and nonphysical to romantic and intimate. Knowing your gender preference allows you to enjoy relationships and identify with other groups. Gender identity, your internal sense of being male or female, is largely determined by primary sex characteristics, which are the physical characteristics present at birth that indicate maleness or femaleness. Secondary sex characteristics develop and appear during puberty, when sexual organs grow and sexual hormones release. Gender identity is the psychological aspect of being male or female, while gender roles are cultural expectations of male or female behavior. Both biological and environmental influences affect gender role development. Gender stereotyping is when people assign characteristics to a person based on their gender alone.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Recognize primary and secondary sex characteristics
Describe the psychological side of human sexuality
Analyze human sexual behavior Discuss sexual dysfunctions and sexually transmitted diseases

• Sexuality and Gender

Personality and Behavioral Patterns

The behaviors that can be seen in people are called surface behaviors, and they don't always tell the whole story about who someone is. When evaluating human behavior, researchers must also look at personality, or the combination of characteristics and qualities that together make a person unique. Temperament, or disposition, plus thoughts, feelings, and behaviors make up a whole person. Researchers hold four major perspectives regarding personality: the psychoanalytic, behaviorist, humanistic, and trait perspectives.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Discuss psychoanalytic approaches to personality and behavior
Discuss the various humanistic approaches to personality
Identify the different personality traits and research methods

• Personality and Behavioral Patterns

Health, Stress, and Its Management

Bill works full time at a local video store and also goes to school full time. When he took the job at the video store, he was attracted to the flexibility of the job, which allows him to work around his class schedule. Everything was going well until the transmission in Bill's car went out. Fortunately, he was able to get a loan from his dad to cover the cost of a new transmission. But while the work was being done, Bill missed a couple of days of work and a few classes. Now he's working overtime to make up the hours at work and trying to catch up on the lectures he missed. He feels as if life is caving in on him. He's stressed, irritable, and frustrated. To top it off, he feels like he's getting a cold. As Bill discovers, many times the big tragedies in life are not what stress people out, but the accumulation of small daily stresses. These escalate and can ultimately overwhelm the body's ability to cope effectively.

Even minor stresses, when multiplied, can lead to reduced immune system function and possible illness. You, too, may be feeling overwhelmed as you try to juggle the many different responsibilities in your own life. Fortunately, some ways to cope have proven effective in reducing the effects of stress and improving immune function. To be healthy, it's important to find ways to better manage the daily stressors in life.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define stress and its different types, both positive and negative
Identify the causes and effects of stress, and methods of stress control
Analyze methods to promote wellness

• Health, Stress, and Its Management

Mental Disorders: Causes, Nature, and Treatment

Abnormal behavior, often perceived as a sign of mental illness, is not uncommon in society, but not all abnormal behavior signifies a mental disorder. Only when the abnormal behavior persists for a prolonged period, or when it causes dysfunction in a person's life, such as affecting their ability to enjoy life and to function socially, does it become of clinical concern. If the behavior interferes with the ability to function, it may reach the level of mental illness. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) describes 250 mental disorders based on symptoms and disease processes. Some main categories include mood disorders, such as anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorder, dissociative disorders, somatoform disorders, schizophrenia, and personality disorders.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe group therapies and the processes involved
Define psychotherapy as a psychological approach to treating mental disorders Identify the different assessment and diagnostic methods related to mental disorders
Discuss the different psychotherapeutic methods for mental disorders
Identify the different assessment and diagnostic methods related to mental disorders
Discuss anxiety and the different types of disorders—dissociate, sexual, gender sexuality, personality, and substance disorders, their causes, and effects

• Mental Disorders: Causes, Nature, and Treatment

Social Thought and Behavior

Most people would not enjoy living alone on a desert island because humans are naturally social creatures. Humans live together, work together, and play together. The world and the people in it influence your beliefs, values, and decisions. Most people enjoy the social aspect of life and find that it helps them live and work better. Although teamwork and being part of a group can be stimulating and rewarding, some worry about groupthink taking over individual thinking and creativity.

Everyone has different ideas and opinions that dictate the way he or she feels about people, events, and objects. Such attitudes shape your interactions and your behaviors by placing preconceived value judgments on them. Whether you are in a committed relationship now or have been in the past, think about what attracted you to that person. The need to get along with friends, coworkers, and others is an important part of daily life. Demonstrating prosocial behavior, which means showing empathy, caring, and concern for the needs and desires of others, will help you enjoy better social experiences.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Discuss social influences, conformity, compliance, and obedience
Discuss social behavior and factors that influence interactions with others
Describe aggression and prosocial behavior

• Social Thought and Behavior

Research Methods

Overview of Qualitative Research

Think about the world around you. Everything you see, hear, touch, or smell belongs to the natural world. But we also inhabit a world of human behaviors and interactions. This environment we call the social world. Scientists study both worlds to understand why certain things occur—but the methods and results differ. Natural scientists conduct experiments and develop hypotheses to establish a set of laws. Scientists follow similar procedures when studying the social world. But the causes and results of human behaviors and social interactions are difficult to predict. Scientific methods have to be adapted to reflect the limitations and needs of the social world. Social scientists cannot draw hard and fast conclusions. They can only make educated guesses about the likelihood of human behaviors or social interactions. Unlike natural scientists, they cannot establish certainties—they can only make predictions. For these reasons, you should always retain a certain amount of skepticism about social science research reports wherever they appear.

Digging deeper into research is a critical component of solid social science. Because of the unpredictable nature of human beings, flawed methodologies may be uncovered. Careful analysis is important when evaluating such studies. You must guard against believing what you want to believe rather than what research determines.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Compare and contrast everyday learning and a scientific approach to learning
Describe the natural world versus the social world with respect to research methods
Describe the causal law
Describe controls and random assignment
Describe the role of the scientific method in social science research methods
Describe the key elements, terms, and concepts in qualitative research

• Overview of Qualitative Research

Foundations of Social Research

Daily life can be unpredictable. Wouldn't it be nice to be able to anticipate the outcome of events headed your way? This is part of what social science research attempts to do by developing reliable predictions about human behaviors and social circumstances. Social scientists establish the predictability of occurrences by determining how often certain things happen and what causes them. To do this, they first create hypotheses, or educated guesses, using observation and prior research. However, because human behavior is less predictable than “natural” phenomena, variables make predictions difficult to quantify and measure accurately.

Social scientists must rely on qualitative measures that view behaviors subjectively, then factor in interpretations and inferences. Regardless of the difficulty, social scientists must attempt to quantify their research when possible. One way they do this is to operationalize abstract concepts. This means giving specific measurable definitions and descriptions to otherwise subjective terms. A researcher might operationalize commitment as a promise, if the study involves looking at marital issues. They might operationalize commitment as a duty or responsibility, if they are researching a work-related question. Such potential differences in the definitions of the variables, the cause or effect criteria, illustrate the difficulties social scientists face when attempting to develop research goals. Outcomes are not always easily or clearly defined. Still, social research provides valuable and important information that can make life a little less unpredictable.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the causal law
Describe the key elements, terms and concepts in qualitative research
Describe controls and random assignment
Define the role of variables, measurement, and statistics in qualitative research
Identify the goal for your research

• Foundations of Social Research

Sticky Problems In Research

How much personal information are you willing to reveal? If we are talking to a friend, we may be forthcoming. But with strangers, we may be hesitant to share. Social science research involves observing people and asking about their personal lives. Researchers often reveal the purpose of their questions, but some researchers may ask people invasive questions without telling them the reasons behind the queries. Such practices tread the narrow line between ethical and unethical research methods.

One of the challenges researchers in all fields face is attempting to balance the possible benefits of studies with the ethical issues that arise. In the past, certain research studies crossed an ethical line. The necessity of following ethical guidelines becomes more crucial when researchers focus on areas of strong personal feeling. Researchers must also guard against becoming stuck in their opinions and compromising research goals. Research guidelines based on basic ethical principles are the foundation of solid social science.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Illustrate how individual biases and beliefs affect social research
Determine the appropriate ethical response to various legal scenarios
Describe common problems in conducting educational research and how they can be avoided
Examine the practical dilemmas and ethical issues faced by modern social researchers

• Sticky Problems In Research

Indirect Methods of Research

Are you a people watcher? Do you enjoy sitting in public spaces and observing crowds walking past? You can learn a great deal about people simply by watching them. You can gather information about their likes, dislikes, habits, and behaviors. Social scientists call this indirect observation, and they use it often. When possible, they prefer to observe people without the subjects being aware that they are being watched. People tend to act more naturally in such instances. By observing subjects without their knowledge, social scientists can gather accurate data about human behavior. Other indirect methods of collecting data are also useful to social scientists. Much information can be gathered by reading newspaper or Internet articles, historical documents, and other written sources. Information can be derived from looking at people's possessions or by viewing the contents of their backpacks, purses, or rooms.

These methods of indirect observation and data collection are significant research tools. They also present fewer ethical issues for researchers. Issues of privacy, confidentiality, and informed consent can be avoided when the acquired information cannot be connected to one person. Indirect methods are especially useful when a subject's reactions might interfere with the collection of accurate data or when memory is a factor.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Compare and contrast contemporary records, archival and historical records, and physical traces as indirect sources of data
Use content analysis to extract data from any of the indirect sources
Use unobtrusive observation in a given scenario
Describe the relative strengths and limitations of two indirect methods of data collection
Conduct a literature review for your resource project using the library or other Internet resources
Assess the strengths and weaknesses of evidences used and conclusions drawn in other research

• Indirect Methods of Research

Using Direct Research Methods: Surveys

If you are like most people, you encounter surveys almost every day. On the Internet, pop-up windows ask you to take an online poll or survey. At a “big-box” store, a clerk asks you to fill out a questionnaire. Surveys are effective and efficient research tools for marketers and political groups as well as for social scientists. Surveys are conducted using either interviews or questionnaires.

An interview can be either structured or unstructured. A structured interview asks a specific set of questions. The respondent's answer choices are limited. An unstructured interview is similar to a conversation in which respondents are asked more open-ended questions. Additional information, not specifically asked by the researcher, may sometimes be offered by subjects. Structured interviews obtain more quantitative, objective, and easily categorized data. Unstructured interviews can obtain richer data, but it is qualitative and thus difficult to categorize.

Creating statistical measures from qualitative data for use in a research study is difficult. Social scientists face a different challenge in creating effective interview or survey questions. Questions must be precise and as focused in their way as the overall research goal. “Either/or” or “and” questions have little value because the answers are too vague. All questions should be mutually exclusive. In other words, two answer options should not be too similar. Questions that use wording to “lead to,” or imply, an answer have no validity in true social science research.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify an appropriate survey type for a given social research topic
Differentiate the relative strengths and limitations of personal interviews, telephone interviews, mail questionnaires, and Internet surveys
Develop questions for a survey
Describe how to pretest and conduct a survey
Compare the strengths and limitations of survey research

• Using Direct Research Methods: Surveys

Using Direct Research Methods: Observation and Ethnography

It's interesting to read articles that surprise or intrigue us. This is often the case when one field of study uses techniques that overlap with another field of study. Ethnological research—direct observation of subjects in their natural setting—is often used in anthropology. However, it can also be useful to other social scientists. So while you might not expect to find Intel in the same category with Margaret Mead—an anthropologist who conducted ethnographic studies of societies in New Guinea—there is a connection. They both used qualitative research. They observed subjects in their natural settings, collected data, and drew conclusions. The observations did not start with a hypothesis or any preconceived ideas.

In social science, this method presents challenges. You might be completely discrete in your observation, but the longer you stay in the setting, the more likely it is that you will have to reveal you intentions. When this happens, the risk is that subjects might alter their behaviors once they are aware that they are being studied.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Examine the practical dilemmas and ethical issues faced by modern social researchers
Select the site and subjects for observational study Select an appropriate data collection method
Record observational data Analyze the methodology employed by other researchers
Evaluate a research report for evidence of bias or ethical rigidity

• Using Direct Research Methods: Observation and Ethnography

Writing Your Research Paper

Sometimes the best way to gain knowledge is to conduct an experiment—do something and then evaluate the results. Social scientists conduct experiments in their research, but these are not always classical experiments that require random selection of study subjects and the use of a control group. Pretests and posttests are often administered. The goal is to determine a cause-and-effect relationship between variables. Classical methods work best when questions are clear and can be translated into simple variables. Human behavior, however, is difficult to slot into categories and variables. Results that appear to show cause-and-effect relationships might be affected by other variables. For this reason, social science experiments are often variations of classical experiments.

Many social science researchers avoid quantitative research designs altogether, preferring qualitative observational research. However, they must find enough evidence to provide causal inference, or an assumption of cause and effect. They must also deal with confounding variables—factors that they did not control for in the study but which might affect the results. They must be open to alternative explanations for the supposed cause-and-effect relationship. You will take all of these elements into consideration as you satisfy your curiosity by designing a research project.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Develop a comprehensive statement of the research problem
Identify an appropriate strategy for initiating qualitative research for a given topic

• Writing Your Research Paper

Reporting

As a student, you probably do a lot of writing. Your assignments might vary, depending on the resource and the project. An essay for a literature class differs from a report that outlines the findings of a science experiment in biology class. However, each written assignment has a format that explains the structure of what you will submit. Social scientists make similar decisions when they prepare reports to share with their peers.

In social science, researchers can choose from among several options, depending on their research project. Each option follows a standardized format because the intent of publishing research findings is to add new information to a field of study. Readers of the information must be able to easily understand the methods and procedures used. They must also trust the findings, knowing that they are both accurate and unbiased. For that reason, journal articles printed in professional journals that other scientists read are peer-reviewed. Fellow scientists in the same field check them for accuracy, proper methodology, and usefulness before they are published. Evaluation reports, which summarize findings from a study, and monographs, or detailed, book-length reports of research programs, each have their own standardized formats.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Select an appropriate report format for your research paper

• Reporting

Impact of Technology On Sociological Research

How much impact do you think recent advances in technology have had on society? Most people would say a lot. Many of these advances are beneficial. The ease of finding almost any information you need by typing a few keystrokes in a search engine is invaluable. So is the ease with which we can now find and keep in contact with old and new friends. Many people also consider the virtual community created by social media beneficial.

However, technological advances also have a dark side. Concerns about privacy invasion, email spam, Internet addiction, cyber bullying, and online stalking by potential predators are all associated with the technology that has taken over our lives. Social scientists must also accept the pros and cons of technology, which has changed the way they conduct and report their research. The abundance of available data requires greater diligence from both researchers and consumers of research. Each must verify the sources of information, scrutinize research methodology, and confirm the reliability of research results. While modern technology allows researchers to sort and analyze large amounts of data, a qualified professional's input is necessary to derive meanings from the findings.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the sociological effects of technology
Summarize the advantages and disadvantages of the software that aid qualitative research
Analyze online journals that address the needs of qualitative researchers

• Impact of Technology On Sociological Research

Finalizing Your White Paper

How likely are you to believe information that you read in newspapers, magazines, or online? This resource is all about examining was passes for facts with a cold eye. Most people take facts at face value if they read them in print, especially if they are issues in a scientific research report. News media and marketers love to include research studies to persuade readers about an idea or a product. Testimonials, or anecdotal information presented by real people, are also valued for their credibility factor.

However, social scientists—and critical readers—examine all facts and anecdotes to spot misleading or inaccurate information. Noting the choices made by an author regarding the structure and focus of a report also provides much insight. Ask yourself, Why were those particular choices were made? Would the article have been more or less persuasive if different choices had been made? Reporters and researchers try to be neutral in their approach. But they may make hidden assumptions or have hidden agendas and personal viewpoints that sneak into their writing. Paying attention to word choice, structure, and organization, determine the central focus of the writing. By doing so, you can spot potential biases. Becoming a skeptical reader will help you avoid similar pitfalls as you prepare your research paper.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Record observational data
Collate and analyze your research findings
Apply all the skills learned to synthesize the research paper project

• Finalizing Your White Paper

Biology Essentials

What Is Biology?

If you are asked to name a living organism, chances are that you would name an animal or plant. Life on Earth is diverse. Do you know what standards define what is alive? A honeybee is obviously alive because it moves about to take in nutrients. The flower is alive because it uses energy from the sun to grow and change. Is the pollen alive that the honeybee takes from the flower? How do you know?

Biologists have developed criteria for differentiating living organisms such as insects and flowering plants from the nonliving environment. This scientific process was used to develop the criteria that define life, along with other basic principles in biology. Learning the scientific process helps us to employ critical-thinking skills and remain objective both in scientific endeavors and in our daily lives.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the main fields of study in biology
Explain the properties of life
Explain the basic principles of biology
Explain the scientific method
Identify the levels of organization in biology
Describe the application of biology in everyday life

• What Is Biology?

The Chemistry of Life

Many organisms in similar ecosystems evolve similar adaptive strategies, even if these organisms are not related. Rain forests, for example, are known for their abundant vegetation. Vines and epiphytes, or aerial plants, are vegetation that is characteristic of rain forests and uncommon in temperate forests. Vines have the advantage of reaching up into rain forest canopies for sunlight exposure, without the energetic costs of creating woody trunks. Epiphytes have dispensed with the ground altogether. They find their required sunlight by growing right on the trunks of tall trees.

All living things share some basic elements. Each topic you study provides a structure for understanding biological systems, from the most basic building blocks of life to entire regions of terrestrial and aquatic environments.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the basic principles of chemical processes in organisms
Locate classes of molecules and macromolecules in organisms

• The Chemistry of Life

Basic Components of Life: The Cell

Advances in microscope technology have played a significant role in building our knowledge about life and biological processes. Microscopes enlarge the image of small objects and have opened up entire new worlds to biologists. An animal cell, however, is both translucent and small, about 10-20µm across, which is about one-fifth the size of the smallest object visible to your eye. A light microscope can display an image of a bacterial cell or the mitochondria within an animal cell, but structures smaller than that were not discovered until microscopy moved forward.

Advances in microscope technology are as important as the techniques used to prepare specimens, such as staining, fluorescent labeling, and dehydrating. Scientists use these techniques to see additional details in specimens. Each type of microscope provides a dimension to an organism that another microscope does not. Though most people have looked through a light microscope, some microscopes today use beams of electrons rather than light to form images on a screen. Each microscope provides its own type of image and requires its own special techniques to make the structures within the specimen visible.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the principles of cell theory
Describe the history of cell theory
Describe the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Compare the components of plant cells versus animal cells

• Basic Components of Life: The Cell

Energy and Membrane Transport In Cells

Transport of materials such as gases, molecules, ions, and food across cell membranes can take many routes too. The dynamic cell has an array of channels, messengers, receptors, and vesicles that are part of the process of moving substances in and out. Examining the cell membrane's architecture will help you understand how cells communicate to transport substrates and energy. The cell membrane is the interface for all cell-to-cell interaction. Fundamental to biology is the process by which plants photosynthesize, resulting in products used to make energy for all cells. Nearly all living things ultimately depend on photosynthesis for the energy to conduct their metabolic processes.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain the function of cellular membranes
Compare the different ways in which molecules are transported across cellular membranes
Describe the ways in which energy flows within the cells

• Energy and Membrane Transport In Cells

Cellular Reproduction

You started out as a single cell, but now that you are fully grown, you contain more than 10 trillion cells. The vast majority of these cells will be replaced. Your skin cells are overturned each month. Your body also repairs itself when bones are broken or your skin is cut. Cell division is responsible for your growth and the repair of your tissues. All cells undergo cellular division as part of the cell cycle. Prokaryotic cells divide by a process called binary fission. The two types of cellular division in eukaryotes involve division of the nucleus by either mitosis or meiosis. These two processes are divided into several phases during which the genetic information in the cell is divided.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain the process of cellular fission in prokaryotes
Explain the process of mitosis
Explain the process of meiosis
Describe the outcomes of reproduction

• Cellular Reproduction

DNA: The Molecule of Life

The total genetic information of an organism is called its genome. This information is organized in various ways. In bacteria and archaea, most of the genome is on one or two, circular chromosomes. Small, circular DNA molecules called plasmids may also be found. In eukaryotes, linear chromosomes are found in the nucleus, but circular chromosomes are found in the mitochondria and plastids (in plants, these are the chloroplasts). Humans have 46 nuclear chromosomes. Examining the molecular structure of DNA is necessary to understand how DNA functions. Expression of the genetic code requires many steps. Replication of gene sequences, cell division, copying of the information onto messenger nucleic acids, and converting the genetic code into proteins are all discussed here in the case of eukaryotic, nuclear DNA. These processes are continuously occurring in your body and are essential to living a healthy life.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify the components of DNA
Explain how the structure of DNA is suitable for storing and replicating information
Describe DNA replication
Describe transcription of genetic information from DNA to mRNA
Describe translation of genetic information from mRNA to protein
Explain how mutations may affect an organism
Compare the organization of the human genome to that of a bacterial genome

• DNA: The Molecule of Life

Patterns of Inheritance

Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk and high school science teacher who lived during the 1800s. His careful work with self-pollinating pea plants by the thousands and detailing the results has provided the basis for the modern field of genetics. As is the case with many other pioneers in their fields, the scientific community did not embrace Mendel's work for more than 30 years. By the time his work was recognized, Mendel had already died. The work of Gregor Mendel and the law of segregation provides the fundamentals of genetics and how traits, such as eye color, are passed from one generation to the next.

The Punnett square is a useful tool in predicting genotypes and phenotypes for some traits. Several inheritance patterns of allelic variation contribute to diversity in populations of organisms. Various mechanisms lead to variation in physical traits. In addition, a variety of genetic disorders can be inherited. These disorders can arise from several mechanisms, ranging from faulty cell division to structural chromosomal malformations or abnormal chromosomal numbers.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define genes Analyze inheritance of Mendelian traits
Compare inheritance of Mendelian traits to that of non-Mendelian traits
Describe mechanisms for controlling the expression of genes
Contrast sex-linked genes and autosomal inheritance
Explain aneuploid disorders

• Patterns of Inheritance

Evolution

How do we know that species evolved over time? No one has ever seen a species evolve, so how could Darwin have come to his startling conclusions? Though Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace provided ideas and research that are still fundamental to biology, studies of the fossil record from both a physical and molecular approach are the key to understanding evolution. Comparative morphology also sheds light on how species populations diverge or converge in terms of physical and functional structures. Contributing factors in evolution, such as natural selection, mutations, and genetic drift, are also examined. Finally, you will consider biological diversity in terms of three broad categories.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Summarize the process of natural selection
Describe the evidence that supports evolutionary theory
Compare natural selection with artificial selection
Explain the modes of natural selection
Describe the relationship between biodiversity and evolution

• Evolution

Biodiversity

Phylogenetics is the practice of reconstructing the history of life by using data to draw different parts of the tree of life. Systematists have elected to classify the great diversity of life according to the results of phylogenetic studies. Current classification systems are a mixture of the traditional Linnaean system and phylogenetic systematics. Current application of the traditional, biological kingdoms is informed by phylogenetics in most cases, but places the domain Archaea and Bacteria at the same level as branches within Eukarya, such as Plantae and Animalia.

In addition to phylogenetic systematics, there are other ways to measure biodiversity that may be useful in particular fields of biology. Understanding the origins of species, the forks in the tree, involves not only genetic data, but also data on morphology, behavior, and geography. Different modes of speciation have been described based on different geographic scenarios. Extinction is an important part of the history of life. Several mass extinction events are evident in the fossil record. The currently high rate of extinction is caused by human activities, mostly through destruction of habitat. The resulting loss of biodiversity is a major concern. Humans benefit from the products of many species. In addition, the effect of biodiversity loss on the ecosystems we depend on may have dire consequences.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain phylogenetic systematics
Describe characteristics of the biological domains
Explain measures of biodiversity
Explain the concept of biological species
Identify the biological kingdom for any organism
Identify major animal phyla
Identify major plant divisions
Describe causes of extinction
Describe modes of speciation

• Biodiversity

Ecology

Ecology is the study of the interaction between living organisms and the interaction with their physical environments. Biodiversity is often considered a measure of the health for a region or ecosystem.

Tarsiers once inhabited rain forests throughout the world. Now the Philippine tarsier, once a common sight on islands in the Philippines, is listed as an endangered species. Because these are shy, nocturnal mammals, there is no conclusive evidence as to how close they may be to extinction. Though steps have been taken to eliminate poaching, the destruction of the tarsiers' habitat still threatens their survival. The Philippine government has committed to the creation of a preserve to maintain a stable environment for the tarsier. You are no doubt aware of steps being taken in your own community to preserve the habitats of native species. This is an area where science and government intersect.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define ecology
Distinguish among different subdisciplines in ecology
Differentiate between ecosystem and biosphere
List abiotic factors that affect living organisms
List biotic factors that affect living organisms
Describe each of Earth's major biomes
Explain the impacts of pollution on an ecosystem
Describe the effects of global climate changes on different ecosystems

• Ecology

Population and Community Ecology

What is a community in the ecological sense? The ecological definition is often confused with the societal definition. The community in which you live is defined by the social values of one species: Homo sapiens. A community consists of many interdependent species. For example, tree frogs and anole lizards both eat insects, but they are rarely in competition with each other. Tree frogs are nocturnal, while the lizards are diurnal. Insect populations are kept in check by both species. Predatory birds, in turn, help keep the lizard and frog populations stable.

When periodic hurricanes hit the rain forest, population structures of all the different species can be affected. Birth rates, death rates, and life spans for all the species temporarily change, and the effects can be long lasting. Examining the characteristics of a population, including growth, density, and distribution, is important. Interactions among species from different populations and among individuals in a population can lead to cooperative and social interactions, niche partitioning, or competition and exclusion from resources.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define different types of population structure
Explain the interaction between the age-structure and population dynamics
Distinguish between exponential and logistic growth
List factors that influence change in population size
Describe different types of community interactions among species
Explain how community interactions affect population dynamics
Analyze differences between communities

• Population and Community Ecology

Biotechnology

Biotechnology is the field of applied biology in which tools and processes are developed from living organisms and systems for use in industry, agriculture, medicine, and environmental remediation. Genetic engineering is one area of biotechnology that specifically uses those techniques for manipulating genes and genomes. Some common methods of isolating, amplifying, and manipulating genetic sequences include gel electrophoresis, the polymerase chain reaction, and cloning.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain the uses of recombinant DNA technology
Explain the history and goals of the human genome project
Describe how gel electrophoresis works
Explain the use of DNA probes
Explain how polymerase chain reaction amplifies DNA
Explain the Sanger method of DNA sequencing

• Biotechnology

Environmental Science

Introduction To Environmental Science

To environmental scientists, the environment is everything around you. Everything you can possibly think of, living and nonliving, is part of the environment. Everything we need to survive is available here on Earth, but unfortunately, some resources cannot be replenished once they've been depleted.

Environmental science studies the environment and the role humans play in changing it. By combining two branches of science—the natural sciences and the social sciences—environmental science helps you understand how humans interact with one another and with the environment. Studying environmental science enables you to make informed decisions as a consumer and to understand your impact on the world.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define the environment
Describe the interdisciplinary nature of environmental science
Describe the scientific methods involved and how science operates
Identify natural resources and their importance to human life
Describe how population pressures and resources interact
Identify prevalent worldviews and environmental ethics
Describe sustainability and sustainable development

• Introduction To Environmental Science

Environmental Systems: Chemistry, Energy, and Ecosystems

Biology, chemistry, and physics are the sciences that, when studied together, help us understand scientific laws that affect our environment, such as the law of gravity and the conservation of energy. In addition, scientific theories such as the theory of evolution by natural selections helps us understand the tremendous diversity we see among living things on Earth.

The study of the environment is basically the study of matter and energy. The source of energy for all living things is the sun. Atoms and molecules are the basic components of both living and nonliving things in the environment. Molecules in plants are able to use energy from the sun to make food. Other living things consume this food, which is metabolized to provide energy. When we study plants and animals, we can see chemistry and physics at work. Energy drives the different cycles on Earth, such as the nitrogen, carbon, phosphorous, and hydrologic cycles, and the rock cycle. By studying these cycles, we understand the impact of our actions on the environment.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define fundamentals of environmental chemistry
Describe the nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus cycles
Identify the hydrologic cycle and the rock cycle
Identify concepts of speciation and extinction
Identify challenges for biodiversity conservation
Define the theory of evolution by natural selection
Describe the fundamentals of population ecology, including carrying capacity and limiting factors
Describe economic growth and sustainability
Examine the origins, history, and societal role of environmental policy
Analyze the relationship among science, economics, and policy
Identify institutions and laws important to U.S. Environmental policy
Explain how nations handle trans-boundary issues
Describe the concepts of environmental and ecological economics

• Environmental Systems: Chemistry, Energy, and Ecosystems

Human Population

The resources we have on Earth now are all we will ever have. When those resources are gone, humans, plants, and animals will be gone as well. Six to seven billion people live on Earth right now, and more and more people are being born every day. At the same time, people are living longer, so the number of people being born is more than the number of people dying. Both of these trends are causing overpopulation. You are already aware of some of the biological reasons why the Earth's environment is in trouble; there are social, political, and economic factors as well, of which overpopulation is just one example. If we are to preserve Earth's resources for future generations, we must find ways to control population growth and use our resources as efficiently as possible.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Apply the fundamentals of demography
Define the scope of human population growth
Describe the demographic transition theory
Analyze strategies for population control
Analyze how human population, affluence, and technology affect the environment
Describe how wealth and poverty, the status of women, and the HIV/AIDS crisis affect population growth
Define consumption and ecological footprint

• Human Population

Soil, Agriculture, and The Future of Food

Soil is essential to our life on Earth; it is so much more than the dirt we walk on or wash off our bodies every day. Soil is a magical combination of disintegrated rock, organic matter, air, water, nutrients, and microorganisms. The vegetables you eat (such as corn) or add to your drinks as sweetener (such as high fructose corn syrup) are all grown in soil. Plants grow in soil by drawing nutrients from it. When plants and animals die, they put nutrients back into the soil. Manure from living animals also contributes nutrients to the soil. You would be amazed at the number and types of household items that come from plants.

Because we depend heavily on plants in our lives, you would think we would go to great lengths to protect the soil in which plants grow, but currently, we are doing little to maintain Earth's soil. Early in agricultural history, as people learned the needs of the soil, crops were rotated so that the soil could replenish its nutrients. Modern farming methods use advanced machinery and fertilizers to keep the world's population fed, but these methods are not always good for the soil. Learn what can make agriculture more sustainable.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the importance of soils to agriculture and the impact of agriculture on soils
Analyze the causes and consequences of soil erosion and degradation
Explain soil conservation: Principles, policies, and practices
Discuss the challenge of feeding a rapidly growing human population
Identify pest management methods
Debate controversies about genetically modified food
Describe the importance of pollination

• Soil, Agriculture, and The Future of Food

Environmental Health and Toxicology

Chances are, to clean your home or apartment, you use a variety of chemical cleaning solutions. Unfortunately, these cleaning solutions are often hazardous to the environment. In addition, many of these cleaning chemicals are not stored or disposed of safely. When these chemicals enter an ecosystem, whether through accident or intention, they can cause major disruptions to the lives and health of plants, animals, and humans.

The effects of a particular ecosystem being disrupted are felt everywhere else on Earth too. If someone dumps these chemicals in the trash for example, they will enter the soil and water table. Animals may attempt to eat plants or waste that's been exposed to the chemicals, which may kill them or make them sick. Plastic containers that held the chemicals may even travel to the ocean, where they can make it impossible for marine animals to swim, eat, or breathe. Remember, everything you do affects other life forms on Earth.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Interpret how concerns for wildlife translate into concerns for human health
Identify the types, abundance, distribution, and movement of synthetic and natural toxicants in the environment
Discuss risk assessment and risk management in relation to toxic and hazardous substances
Examine the factors affecting toxicity
Analyze philosophical and policy approaches to risk and environmental health

• Environmental Health and Toxicology

Science, Pollution, and Climate Change

Earth's atmosphere contains a layer of ozone that protects Earth from excessive ultraviolet radiation. The use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) was once widespread, and before they were banned in most countries, CFCs damaged the ozone layer. Modern threats to the ozone layer include the burning of coal, factory emissions, motor vehicle exhaust, certain fertilizers, and animal waste. The ozone layer protects all life on Earth from excessive radiation from the sun. Once the ozone layer is gone, rising temperatures will affect climate and weather patterns on Earth. Melting ice will cause sea levels to rise, changing coastlines. In short, without the ozone layer, life on Earth would be in jeopardy.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe stratospheric ozone depletion issues
Identify the current and potential future impacts of climate change
Identify the scientific, political, and economic debates concerning global climate change
Describe outdoor and indoor air pollution
Describe acid precipitation and solutions to air pollution problems

• Science, Pollution, and Climate Change

Freshwater and Marine Systems and Resources

You probably know that water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen atoms, but did you know that water takes up about 70% of Earth's surface and that most of the human body is made of water? Most of Earth's water is found in its five oceans. Ocean water contains high concentrations of salt and is not suitable for human consumption. Only 2.5% of Earth's water is considered freshwater, most of which is found in the ice caps and in underground aquifers. Only a small percentage of Earth's available freshwater is found in ponds, lakes, rivers, and streams. As you know, water exists in three physical states: as a solid (in glaciers and ice caps), as a liquid (in lakes and rivers), and as a gas (in the form of water vapor in the clouds). You can survive for weeks without food, but only for a few days without water. People all over the world understand the importance of protecting our water today, but that was not always the case. Even with today's conservation efforts, we still have a long way to go to protect our precious water.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Analyze the human impact on freshwater and marine environments
Examine the depletion of freshwater and marine resources
Describe the solutions to problems of depletion of freshwater and marine resources
Analyze marine protected areas as reserves and as innovative solutions
Examine the hydrologic cycle and human interactions with it

• Freshwater and Marine Systems and Resources

Biodiversity and Conservation Biology

Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a species, ecosystem, biome, or entire planet. The greater the biodiversity, the healthier the environment. In order to judge the level of Earth's biodiversity, scientists have identified more than one million organisms, which they believe is only a fraction of the total number. However, biodiversity is not evenly distributed over the Earth. The greatest biodiversity exists in the tropical rain forests, which is why the deforestation occurring in the Amazon basin is of such great concern. Some people believe that we are living in a period of mass extinction, which is a period of sharp decrease in the biodiversity of life on Earth.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe measurements of biodiversity
Examine the primary causes of biodiversity loss
Analyze island biogeography
Describe conservation biology and its benefits
Appraise traditional and more innovative biodiversity conservation efforts

• Biodiversity and Conservation Biology

Land Use and Resource Management

Because of poor land management and urban sprawl, America's suburbs don't look much different than their cities. More shopping malls and office buildings exist than trees. Roadways aren't able to keep up with the changes rapid expansion brings, and so cars and trucks sit in traffic. It's what happens when you build to support human needs for a space, without considering the needs of other life forms in the area.

Urban sprawl has not only contributed to environmental problems, it has also effected human health. Because people are more inclined to drive in areas of urban sprawl, they exercise less, which contributes to health problems like heart disease and obesity. Increased development also means more pollution to our land, water, and air, which also contributes to health problems.

When human beings first appeared on Earth, the amount of land available for them to live on seemed limitless. That is no longer true. In fact, governments all over the world have had to make a conscious effort to preserve land for wildlife and for future generations of human beings. While land development is necessary, improved planning can ensure that future land development is more sustainable for people and other organisms alike.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe forestry and forest management issues
Explore land use decisions
Describe the role of parks and reserves
Analyze urbanization and urban sprawl
Analyze planning for livable cities

• Land Use and Resource Management

Conservation and Nonrenewable Energy Sources

Consider how much a gallon of gas cost the last time you filled up your car. Petroleum prices go up and down for many reasons, but the most significant reason is supply. Scientists estimate that we have used up half of Earth's petroleum reserves; reaching the remaining petroleum reserves will be not only more difficult, but more dangerous as well. In the Deepwater Horizon oil spill of 2010, an oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico exploded while drilling at a water depth of about 5,000 feet. Oil flowed unabated from the well into the Gulf for three months before experts were finally able to seal the well. The effects of the spill are still being felt. As more countries modernize, the global demand for oil will increase, causing Earth's oil reserves to be depleted even more rapidly. The global petroleum supply has also contributed to global economic and political problems in recent years.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe patterns of energy production and consumption
Examine coal, its origins, and consequences of its use
Examine crude oil, its origins, and consequences of its use
Examine natural gas, its origins, and consequences of its use
Analyze the environmental impact of fossil fuel use
Describe nuclear energy, its origins, and its history

• Conservation and Nonrenewable Energy Sources

Renewable Energy Alternatives

Most of the energy we use today is derived from fossil fuels. Fossil fuels have driven the industrial revolution in the United States and other countries and have provided energy for the modern conveniences we enjoy. The problem is, fossil fuels are nonrenewable resources, and we may completely run out of them in the next 50 years.

Several renewable resources are already being used in limited ways, and there are advantages and disadvantages to each of them. Wind is one resource that can be harnessed and converted into electric power. Wind turbines use minimal land, though some people complain that they are unsightly. We know that there is an endless supply of wind, but the amount of energy we can harness from the wind depends on its speed, which is not always predictable. Our future energy needs will probably be met by using a combination of renewable resources such as wind, biomass, solar, geothermal, ocean energy and other resources that are still being developed or simply dreamt of.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define biomass energy
Describe principles of energy conservation
Explain ocean energy sources
Discuss hydrogen fuel cells and new transportation options
Describe principles of energy conservation
Compare and contrast hydroelectric, solar, wind, and geothermal energy

• Renewable Energy Alternatives

Waste Management

In the United States, and in other developed countries, people and businesses dispose of trash at alarming rates. In most cities today, if the sanitation workers go on strike for more than a few weeks, trash bags and our daily rubbish ends up on the streets. Even when the trash disposal system works, it's not ideal. Most of trash we put out to be picked up ends up in landfills, where it takes decades or even centuries to decompose. Landfills take up valuable land that can be used for other purposes.

All beings on Earth generate waste. We can never completely eliminate it, but we can learn to manage it responsibly. Native Americans in the United States used every single part of the animals and trees they harvested. We can do that with many of the resources we now use irresponsibly. We can also make materials that decompose more rapidly and find new ways to recycle the materials we do use.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the types of waste we generate
Discuss municipal solid waste, industrial waste, and hazardous waste
Analyze composting and recycling approaches to managing waste
Discuss waste reduction solutions

• Waste Management

Sociology

The Field of Sociology

Are you interested in who you might have become if you had been raised in another family or even in another culture? What about if you had lived during another time in history or if you were born another gender or race? Why are these questions so interesting and so unsettling at the same time? Is it because we aren't sure how our experiences have contributed to our formation as individuals and it's impossible to know who we are, or would be, naturally?

Max Weber, a famous sociologist that you will come to know better, defined sociology in this way: “...science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its resource and effects.” He also noted, importantly: “There is no absolutely ‘objective' scientific analysis of culture...All knowledge of cultural reality... is always knowledge from particular points of view.” What these definitions mean to you now and what they might mean at the end of this resource could be different. This resource introduces you to the field of sociology—its history and the theoretical perspectives, research methods, and ethical issues related to it.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Discuss the three theoretical approaches to sociology
Define what is meant by the sociological perspective
Discuss the origins of sociology and the key thought leaders who shaped the field
Describe the history of sociology in North America
Identify and describe the various research methods used in the field of sociology
Discuss how research and theory work together
Assess ethical issues involved in sociological research

• The Field of Sociology

Culture

Questions of culture continue to perplex and preoccupy us—how a culture forms, how a culture is perpetuated, why deep differences among cultures arise when we are all, after all, of the same species. Octavio Paz, a famous poet and thinker, writes, “What sets worlds in motion is the interplay of differences, their attractions and repulsions... The ideal of a single civilization for everyone, implicit in the cult of progress and technique, impoverishes and mutilates us.” As we take a look at the cultures and subcultures in the United States as well as symbolic cultures and values, we will develop a mental tool kit to guide our awareness and understanding of other cultures and of “what sets the world in motion.”

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Differentiate between cultures, subcultures, and countercultures
Define culture
Discuss the role of culture in social interactions

• Culture

Socialization

Do you wonder why children born to the same parents are often so different from each other? Even in a seemingly identical environment, individuals may develop broad differences in perception and thinking styles. This is true even of twins. These differences are critical and they impact social interactions and behaviors. Just to confuse matters, there have been studies of twins separated at birth who, raised in very different families, nonetheless develop almost identical personal styles, opinions, and personalities. The nature-nurture debate is a basic conundrum in sociology. The debate has been going on since at least 1869, when Sir Francis Galton published Hereditary Genius, a work seeking to prove that most personal traits are inherited. The debate continues today with the ongoing twin study research at the University of Minnesota. As is often the case in sociology, there is no clear set of answers.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define human nature and factors that affect human nature
Discuss the different agents of socialization
Describe sociological interactions in everyday life and the factors that affect them
Analyze the role and effects of media on social interactions
Compare and contrast gender differences in socialization

• Socialization

Deviance and Social Control

The term deviance is used to refer to any violation of norms. What is deviant in one religion, country, or time period may not be considered deviant in another religion, country, or time period. Deviance is often beholden to context. But are there universal forms of deviance as well—behaviors considered unacceptable across any cultural divide? And if so, what determines what these are? Questions abound as we turn our attention to social deviance.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Distinguish between the different perspectives on deviance
Analyze the reasons for deviant behaviors from a biological perspective
Analyze the reasons for deviant behaviors from a sociological perspective

• Deviance and Social Control

Global Stratification and Racial Discrimination

Most of us yearn for a sense of belonging and approval from family, friends, peers, and even from those we do not know. Group inclusion is fundamental to our sense of who we are individually. Being overly oriented toward a particular group, however, can also lead to discrimination against other groups. Sexual and racial discrimination—topics of this resource—are the results of the cultural dominance of some groups (and fear and hatred of those outside the groups) overriding human-to-human empathy and interaction.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify social structures in a group organization and their roles
Interpret trends in stratification in the world Define global stratification
Compare and contrast between universal and comparative social stratification
Discuss sexual and racial discrimination and their role in our daily social interactions
Identify historical instances of racial discrimination and its effects

• Global Stratification and Racial Discrimination

Inequalities of Gender and Age

Gender and age are two categories that are used by all cultures to classify people. They are considered master statuses that cut across all aspects of social life. Sociologically, it's interesting to note where a position of prestige outweighs other social status considerations in the case of the judges. In most cultures, being female results in significant barriers to power, property, and prestige due to factors such as pregnancy and childbearing. This has led to women becoming a minority group. In continuing to challenge assumptions, it is important to point out that in some cultures, older people and females are revered, or highly esteemed. The worship of female fertility has persisted throughout the ages. In most Native American tribes and clans, chiefdom is only conferred upon the oldest male.

Again, how gender and age are used to classify people varies throughout cultures and the world. These two groups, age and gender, so integral to society, are nonetheless disproportionately subject to the following: Prejudice Discrimination Hostility

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Critique the relationship between gender inequalities and social stratification
Discuss issues of sex and gender
Discuss females as a minority and the resulting impact on social organizations
Describe aging from a global perspective

• Inequalities of Gender and Age

Social Class and Decision Making

Social classification—the many ways we divide ourselves, seek to exclude others, and/or long to join others—is driven by complex needs and wants. Examining a multitude of factors is necessary to figure out how social class is related to family life, education, religion, politics, level of wealth, and physical health. It's important to examine not only the components of social class, but also how they affect people and decision making, such as the following: Wealth Power and Prestige

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe social class
Describe the consequence of social class
Examine poverty and its effects on society
Describe feminization of poverty
Examine the different sociological models
Analyze changes in social class between generations
Examine peer pressure and its effects on making decisions
Analyze the importance of income, power, and prestige on career choices
Identify the reasons the feminization of poverty occurs
Identify trends related to the feminization of poverty

• Social Class and Decision Making

Politics and Economics

Politics heavily involve power and authority. A country's political decisions influence its economy, and any one country's economy influences the world's economy. They are all intertwined. An effective system of producing and distributing goods is the basis for a strong economy. While each form of government has its own way of making decisions, policies that undermine a government's economic base can cause that economy and that country's social structure to falter.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Discuss power, authority, and violence
Differentiate between the different types of governments in different countries around the world
Examine the U.S. political system
Analyze world economic systems
Examine the U.S. political system
Discuss capitalism in a global economy
Discuss the causes and effects of transformation of economic systems
Discuss war and terrorism
Describe globalization Identify the role of world economic systems on globalization
Describe the impact of globalization on society

• Politics and Economics

Marriage and Family

Finding a globally accurate definition of family is difficult, though a family nearly always includes two or more people related by blood, marriage, or adoption, who live together in shared residence and responsibility. Family structures also help define descent and inheritance. All cultures define a set of relationships and living arrangements for a married couple, defining what determines which individuals may marry, how a couple meets, when they can become legally united, and what the ritual will be like when that joining occurs.

Marriage isn't really just between two people. It is a ritual and relationship that is deeply rooted in a culture's history and in its social values. However, customs do change as cultures evolve, possibly to encompass more nuanced and varied definitions of what constitutes marriage. Think of the very public ways in which the concept of marriage has changed as politically charged debates over same-sex marriage have emerged. Do laws protecting same-sex marriage redefine marriage as we know it, or do they reinforce the whole concept?

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Examine the family life cycle
Distinguish between theoretical and global perspectives of marriage and family
Examine the impact of family structure, class, and birth order on the raising of a child
Describe diversity in U.S. families and cross-cultural variations in marriages
Analyze trends in divorce and remarriage in different nations

• Marriage and Family

Education and Religion

Formal education transmits cultural values, assists in social integration, communicates knowledge and skills, and eases children into the behavioral and cognitive mainstream of their society. Religions seek to answer grand questions about ultimate meaning and provide their adherents with social solidarity, guidelines for living, and support for social change. Religion also provides a set of values and moral norms for followers and the motivation to do “right.” Because education and religion are fundamental to personal identity and group affiliation, sociologists think about these two issues a lot. The ways in which religion and education intersect can be confounding. Let's take a look at two of the most transformational forces in human society: education and religion.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Discuss norms and values encouraged and discouraged by the United States educational system
Identify problems in United States education
Distinguish between the different perspectives on education
Provide recommendations and strategies for improvement of United States education
Identify links between religion and core values in the United States
Discuss the different types of religious groups in the world
Explain how the link between religion and core values is reflected in United States' society and educational system

• Education and Religion

Population and Urbanization

As food availability increases in developing nations, often the population increases as well. Better-fed and healthier people live longer, resulting in skyrocketing population growth. Unchecked, this strains food production and social care systems of all types. Population increases throughout the world threaten the quality of our lives and the well-being of our planet. Will our planet be able to continue to support the growing population? Given a population of nearly seven billion people, are there more famines and mass starvations to come? What can be done to prevent this kind of disaster? These are questions to think about as you proceed through this resource, which deals with the issues and challenges precipitated by the increase in population and urbanization.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain the new and anti-Malthusian perspectives on population growth
List problems resulting from overpopulation
Compare the evolution of various cities and the impact on their populations
Define urbanization Analyze events in history that have favored changes in society
Describe urban sprawl Identify and describe common urban problems

• Population and Urbanization

Social Change

Social change is an integral part of our daily lives, and the rate of change is escalating. Throughout this resource, you have been encouraged to think about personal questions related to the large sociological questions you're examining. Today, social change in the United States is happening around nearly every sociological turn. Social norms, the place for religious expression, family and class definitions, and social mobility are all radically different from the way they were during the middle of the last century.

Now is a time to reflect on all of the change you have considered throughout this resource. And you will be looking at that change through the lens of what seems to define our era: information technology. Advancements in communication and technology have transformed our relationships with individuals and with our communities. Understanding how social change modifies social life is important and will make tolerating and even controlling that change easier.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the theories and processes of social change
Analyze the effects of technology on social interactions
Analyze the effects of growth and progress on the environment
Discuss propaganda and social movements

• Social Change

Public Speaking

Introduction To Public Speaking

In one of the most famous speeches delivered in the twentieth century, Martin Luther King Jr. called for racial equality and spoke out against discrimination. King's “I Have a Dream” speech, which lasted only 17 minutes, was a defining moment of the civil rights movement. The speech had an instant and lasting impact. King spoke with passion and conviction and was able to draw in his audience with an expertly crafted message.

Great leaders are often excellent public speakers. They know how to mobilize and inspire audiences with the power of their voices. Few people will have the opportunity to address an entire nation during their lifetime, but most people will eventually be in a position that requires them to speak in public. Whether we are required to give a presentation at our workplace or speak at a special event, knowing the fundamentals of public speaking can significantly improve the effectiveness of our speeches. To learn more about public speaking, you need to know the elements that contribute to a well-written speech, such as how to execute a speech and make the most of the opportunity you have to present your message. Though public speaking is a source of stress for many people, once you learn the basic communication principles and master the steps of the public speaking process, you will be able to gain confidence in your public speaking skills.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe basic communication principles
Describe basic public speaking principles
Apply methods for relieving communication apprehension to build speaker confidence
Prepare an introduction speech

• Introduction To Public Speaking

Listening and Critical Analysis Skills

Although oral tradition has changed over time, the art of delivery is just as crucial at all levels of interaction and speech writing. As an audience member, good listening skills help you get the most out of a speech. To be an effective listener, you need to have a solid understanding of different listening styles, the practice of active listening, and the value of note taking. You also should know how to provide detailed feedback to other speakers. Distractions and a lack of interest can cause you to miss vital information the speaker is providing. Whether you are presenting a speech or listening to one, you should be aware of the various levels of listening, common barriers that prevent listening, and techniques you can use to improve your listening.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe concepts associated with the importance of listening
Describe types of listening
Describe the listening process
Describe methods used in evaluating speeches
Perform an introduction speech

• Listening and Critical Analysis Skills

Analyzing The Audience

Recall a speech you saw on television or in person that captivated you. The speaker probably covered the topic in a way that made you feel connected with the subject. The speech was likely relevant to your everyday life and delivered in a way that was both engaging and easy to understand. You may not have known it at the time, but the speaker's ability to reach out to you personally was carefully planned through several steps of audience analysis.

Think about the kinds of speeches that high-profile political figures give. When President Obama has to address the entire country regarding current events, he must consider the wide variety and large audience he is addressing—not just in person, but also the hundreds of thousands of people who will be tuning in on their television sets. President Obama and his team of experts will have to craft a well-rounded speech that is factual, engaging, and takes into consideration the type of audience and then modify the speech accordingly. This planning involves the speaker incorporating the demographic, attentiveness, and mood of the audience into the speech. Keeping in mind these audience-centered techniques will help public speakers create the best presentation possible.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe concepts related to different types of audiences
Employ audience analysis techniques
Devise strategies for adapting to audience feedback

• Analyzing The Audience

Selecting A Topic

Public speakers know how to use language that engages their audience and motivates them to listen, regardless of the topic of a speech. At times, public speakers have to prepare speeches based on an already decided topic, but most people have the opportunity to choose their own speech topic. Selecting a speech topic may seem pretty simple, but you must consider many factors before making your final selection.

To learn more about topic selection, you need to examine tools and techniques that help determine the potential success of a speech topic and learn how to prepare purpose and thesis statements for your topic once you have selected it. You need to understand commonly used methods for speech writing, including how to develop a speech topic and how to generate main ideas. It's important to create a speech around something you are passionate about that also serves a purpose. You can choose a topic that will make for a successful speech by breaking the topic selection process down into different steps, considering all of the relevant factors, and using organizational methods.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Use tools and techniques for refining speech topics
Prepare purpose statements and thesis statements for speech topics
Apply standard methods for creating fully developed speech topics

• Selecting A Topic

Finding Supporting Materials

Even speeches that do not rely on statistical analysis require careful selection of credible supporting materials. Almost all speeches will require facts that are not immediately available to the speaker and a level of conscious research. Selecting appropriate supporting material for your speech is important. Before you identify your sources, you will develop a research plan to strategize the most effective research as it applies to your speech. Blending these skills will help you to communicate a speech that is relevant to your audience and includes credible information.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe possible uses for different types of supporting materials
Explain the roles of supporting materials in speeches
Use a variety of resources for locating supporting materials

• Finding Supporting Materials

Creating Effective Speech Components

Successful speakers engage their audiences not only with their content but also with their confidence and knowledge. These speakers captivate their audiences by revealing their insight on a topic in an engaging, informative way. The speech may serve to educate the audience on an unfamiliar subject, mobilize them in a call for action, share a story, or celebrate an individual. Speakers use organization and specific speech components to eliminate scrambling and distraction that could negatively affect speech delivery. To learn more about organizing and writing speeches, you need to understand how to effectively use organizational patterns and useful methods for creating engaging speech content.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Summarize organizing methods and patterns for creating speeches
Demonstrate effective use of organizational patterns
Describe standard practices and methods for creating engaging speech content

• Creating Effective Speech Components

Outlining The Speech

To make a great speech, you have to plan. Your main points need to be organized in a logical fashion. Outlining is a vital preplanning process. It gives you the chance to develop your thoughts and see how they connect. When you begin to outline your plan for a speech about healthy food choices, for example, you find that your focus will be how to implement this program into your school successfully. You decide to focus on managing costs and the success of similar programs and minimize the statistics regarding childhood obesity because this does not fit as well into your strategic plan. In your head it might seem like all of your ideas are important, but once you outline you may find that some ideas are irrelevant while others can be combined into one point.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe concepts and issues concerning outline content
Prepare detailed and well-planned outlines

• Outlining The Speech

Creating and Delivering Informative Speeches

A successful speech would be varied and interesting, stressing the importance of the language and how it could relate to the student's day-to-day life. When this kind of speech does not succeed, many factors contribute to its failure. Part of the student's frustration might have been from the way the teacher introduced new material. Maybe the teacher neglected to fully explain the content, leave room for questions and practice, or relate the content to real-life scenarios that would engage the students' interest. These elements are also important in informative speeches. Informative speeches cover topics from people and places to abstract concepts and controversial issues. They are meant to garner enthusiasm for topics and ideas that the audience may not already know about.

When you plan your informative speech, you should consider the purpose of the speech and what you would like your audience to take away from it. Next, consider the structure and language tools available to you, and use the tools that make your speech clear and memorable.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Summarize concepts and challenges specific to different types of informational speeches
Prepare an informative speech
Perform an informative speech

• Creating and Delivering Informative Speeches

Delivering The Speech

The difference between a boring lecture and a fascinating presentation can lie in the smallest changes of language, vocal quality, and nonverbal communication. Engaging the audience is one of the primary goals of public speaking, but numerous factors can prevent audience members from fully receiving the speaker's message. Increase your awareness of how others could interpret your tone and facial expressions, and learn how to respond to undesirable environmental conditions and difficult audience questions.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify the basic principles of effective verbal and nonverbal communication in speech delivery
Use effective verbal and nonverbal communication when delivering a speech
Identify the audience and environmental variables that influence speech delivery
Apply common techniques for accepting and managing listener feedback

• Delivering The Speech

Designing and Using Presentation Aids

Presentation aids can make a good speech stand out, but using them requires more thought than simply retaining audience attention. Presentation aids can potentially detract from your speech if not carefully considered. Speakers can choose from a number of aids, but not all types are suitable for every speech. However, in a speech about global warming, an interactive presentation that has to do with the changes in weather would be far more appropriate. Understanding the benefits and purposes of the types of aids allows you to successfully incorporate them into your speech.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe concepts and issues related to the use of presentation aids
Apply a range of techniques for creating different types of presentation aids
Demonstrate how to incorporate presentation aids successfully into a speech

• Designing and Using Presentation Aids

Creating and Delivering Persuasive Speeches

Persuasive speeches are perhaps the most well-known examples of public speaking. From political speeches to business proposals, persuasion is a widely used tactic. Audiences might be receptive, hostile, or indifferent to your topic. To account for this, you will need to understand different types of arguments and the fallacies that can easily invalidate them. When you want to change the audience's views or have them take action, you need to ensure that your message is effective.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Summarize concepts and challenges specific to persuasive speeches
Prepare a persuasive speech
Perform a persuasive speech

• Creating and Delivering Persuasive Speeches

Creating and Delivering Ceremonial Speeches

Emma is an introverted person and does not normally speak well in front of crowds. She has difficulty making eye contact with the audience and stutters when she is nervous. But on this day, Emma is confident about her speech and has rehearsed what she will say and how she will deliver her speech many times. With a microphone in hand, Emma prepares to perform one of her final duties as maid of honor: toasting the bride. She recounts a moving story of how they met in high school and how they grew and developed as young women together. She tells a brief anecdote about how the bride and groom met, and her first impressions of their relationship. At the end, she proposes the toast to this new chapter in this couple's lives and takes her seat again.

Though informal, this is an example of a ceremonial speech. These types of speeches are usually given at special events, such as graduations, weddings, funerals, and award ceremonies. As with any other speech, ceremonial speeches require certain elements and face possible challenges.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Summarize concepts and issues specific to ceremonial speeches
Prepare a ceremonial speech
Perform a ceremonial speech

• Creating and Delivering Ceremonial Speeches

Critical Thinking

The Structure of Arguments

Every argument has a basic structure, or a blueprint, for gathering knowledge that allows you to determine the truth or falsehood of a statement. This truth or falsehood lies at the core of a good argument. Arguments also involve a specific kind of inquiry. All arguments consist of a series of statements designed to prove the truth or validity of a final, overarching statement. Additional supportive statements, called premises, are offered as evidence. The strength of an argument depends on two components: supportive statements and the argument's conclusion. Understanding the logical relationship between the two can help you make more persuasive and trusted arguments and, perhaps, even increase your sphere of influence.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Differentiate deduction from induction
Distinguish statements from non-statements
Identify the use of logical support in arguments
Apply the use of premises and conclusions
Distinguish between documented fact and opinion
Describe the difference between explicit and implicit assumptions
Explain assumptions as premises in arguments
Differentiate between explicitly expressed and tacitly implied premises
Describe the differences among facts, inferences, assumptions, opinions, and theories
Describe modes of inquiry

• The Structure of Arguments

Deduction: Truth and Validity

Deductive reasoning uses only the elements that are already contained within an argument to make an inferential claim and assert the truthfulness of its conclusion. In deductive reasoning, you draw conclusions based on a step-by-step evaluation of the premise statements made in an argument. When combined, these premise statements should all lead to a logical conclusion if the argument is valid.

However, it is not just the logic of an argument's premise statements that determine believability. The argument's sequencing must also conform to a structure that has logical integrity. In such a case, when the premises are true, the conclusion is also guaranteed to be true. The guarantee of linked truthfulness is called entailment, and it is created by the relationship between a set of statements. Without entailment, a valid argument cannot guarantee the truth of its conclusion. In fact, a valid argument can have false premises and a false conclusion. Soundness is one of the most important elements in an argument. A deductive argument is sound if it is valid and all premises are true.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define entailment for deduction
Assess the use of evidence to draw inferences and support conclusions
Define the concept of inferential claim

• Deduction: Truth and Validity

Deduction: Argument Forms

As a critical thinker, you should examine all of your arguments for quality, from checking premises for truth to ensuring the validity of form. Just as QA professionals use templates to check the form of finished products, as a critical thinker, you can also use templates to determine the form of an argument.

One way to check an argument's form is to first determine its conclusion—the statement that is purported to be truthful and substantiated by the other statements, or premises. You can use symbols to represent the words and work backward from the conclusion to place the premise statements in logical order, leading up to the conclusion. You can then determine if your argument fits into one of the valid forms, such as hypothetical syllogism or categorical syllogism. If your argument does not fit a valid form, you can test it further by using a truth table. A truth table is a graphic representation of all possible truth values of an argument presented in lines or rows, and it serves as a QA method of analyzing arguments.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Apply the use of premises and conclusions
Use common argument forms
Classify argument forms
Classify arguments based on validity

• Deduction: Argument Forms

Induction: Generalizations

It's common to look to past personal experience to make predictions about future events and circumstances in the world. People often make assumptions, or generalizations, based on inference. These are logical conclusions that derive from premises that are already known or assumed to be true. However, this kind of generalization is not sufficient to provide trustworthiness in an argument. There are requirements for good arguments that use generalizations.

One such strategy uses simple enumeration. If you observe that a sample of a group's members share a certain characteristic, you might infer that all of the members share the same characteristic. This strategy is only legitimate for use in an argument, however, when you have a sample that is representative of a much larger group. In other words, the sample group must be large enough to stand in for the larger group. Additionally, participants must be randomly selected. This means that there is no special selection of the group members. Every person in the larger target population should have an equal chance of being chosen as part of the smaller sample group.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define inductive probability
Apply the use of premises and conclusions
Use common argument forms
Classify argument forms
Assess the use of evidence to draw inferences and support conclusions

• Induction: Generalizations

Induction: Evidence and Analogies

Inductive arguments offer premises that provide some degree of support for the argument's conclusion based on inductive probability. These arguments are different from deductive arguments because their premises, if true, make their conclusions likely to be true. However, they do not guarantee that the conclusions are true. With inductive reasoning, the truth of the conclusion is not contained in the premises. Rather, the truth of the premises provides credible circumstantial evidence for the conclusion.

Even the strongest inductive arguments do not purport to ensure the truth of their conclusions. However, you can make strong inductive arguments, such as the one above, by being aware of inductive reasoning patterns and learning how to effectively use them. You can also assess your premises to see if each one gives added reasons to prove your argument's conclusion is true. Even though inductive arguments do not guarantee truthfulness and proof of their conclusions, they can be very persuasive when created using proper form, sound logic, and reliable facts.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Discern any logical fallacies in an argument
List common formal fallacies
Interpret fallacy forms
Classify fallacy forms
Distinguish between fallacies and arguments

• Induction: Evidence and Analogies

Workplace Conflict Management

Deductive arguments have a distinct pattern of logic. In deductive arguments, the form, or pattern, of the argument means everything. The form determines the argument's validity, rather than the actual subject matter. Problematic structure is one way in which an argument can be faulty. At other times, it is the way language is used in an argument that creates complications. A good speaker or writer can make a formal fallacy sound like a plausible argument. However, it will still be an unreliable argument.

Studying both the right and wrong ways to make arguments is helpful for two reasons: to be able to recognize poor reasoning from others and to be sure that you are using correct reasoning. Existential fallacies assume that a true universal statement always implies the existence of the class of objects it describes. But people sometimes make universal statements about things, such as unicorns or urban myths. Arguments of affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent seem logical upon first inspection, but they do not hold up to scrutiny. You must consider all possibilities before accepting arguments as truth.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Discern any logical fallacies in an argument
List common formal fallacies Interpret fallacy forms
Classify fallacy forms
Distinguish between fallacies and arguments

• Formal Fallacies and Weak Induction

Informal Fallacies

Informal fallacies use deceptions and language tricks to substantiate claims. Amphiboly is a fallacy of ambiguity that results from incorrect grammatical structure in a sentence. Appeal to pity occurs when a writer or speaker exploits an audience's sympathy to gain support for a conclusion. Politicians often use argument against the person to elicit an emotional response by attacking a person's character, instead of offering legitimate support for claims. In appeal to force the arguer threatens, explicitly or implicitly, that harm will come to you if you don't accept his or her claim. These arguments all have one feature in common: they are designed to distract you from the facts.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Discern any logical fallacies in an argument
List common informal fallacies Interpret fallacy forms
Classify fallacy forms
Distinguish between fallacies and arguments

• Informal Fallacies

Language and Logic

Language has two kinds of meaning. Cognitive meaning refers to the actual meaning of a word or phrase. Emotive meaning is the meaning that is conveyed in the connotation of the words. It refers to the emotional associations that are connected to words. These do not necessarily fit the literal meanings. Emotive words always convey an emotional charge. Two different words or phrases can have similar literal, or cognitive, meanings but differ greatly in their emotive meanings.

Using emotive words to either add a negative or a positive charge is referred to as slanting. People often use cognitive language when conveying facts and use emotive language when making an emotional appeal to a reader or listener.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Evaluate the soundness of ideas and information
Estimate the truth value of statements
Evaluate sources of information for bias and reliability

• Language and Logic

Reading Media

Media literacy is the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create text that can be distributed on different platforms. It is important to remember that the goal of many media messages is to persuade an audience to believe an idea or to take action. With persuasion at the core of many media messages, you must be able to think critically to decipher the variety of messages. You can use the same tools you use to evaluate arguments. The goal of written arguments is to persuade an audience that the ideas being presented are valid.

Media messages that seek to persuade are most often found in advertising, public relations, and advocacy. In evaluating these messages, you have even more reason to check the sources because such information is inherently subjective.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Classify fallacy forms
Classify arguments based on strength
Evaluate the soundness of ideas and information
Estimate the truth value of statements
Critique sources of information for their reliability
Describe types of evidence and support to use to defend an argument
Define the concept of evidence
Distinguish between facts, testimony, and personal opinions
Explain the process of proving facts
Evaluate competing claims within an argument
Distinguish between sources of information

• Reading Media

Bias and Viewpoints

In critical thinking, a tendency toward preferences for certain hidden beliefs or viewpoints is called bias. Biases often come from an individual's personal background and situations. Worldviews are shaped by different environmental factors, such as parents, families, and friends. Group memberships can influence underlying assumptions as well. Media sources, such as television, movies, music, video games, and the Internet, also inform personal viewpoints.

There are several types of biases you should be aware of as a critical thinker. Warranted assumptions require solid evidence to support them. Unwarranted assumptions are not based on evidence and rely on emotions as their sole support. Provisional assumptions that are accepted for the sake of argument allow you to come to common ground with those who hold different viewpoints from your own. Understanding your own and others' underlying assumptions will help you identify facts, which can lead to better decision making.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe how to interpret evidence in an argument
Explain how various kinds of evidence correspond to various conclusions
Analyze premises as evidence for conclusions
Describe how to be fair-minded in one's approach to interpretation
Describe the elements of good critical thought
Explain the effect of emotion on thought
Describe the concept of bias Identify examples of bias
Describe the concept of perspective
Explain why different perspectives may have different outcomes in critical thought
Describe ways to recognize bias
Define the concept of reasonableness
Determine the reasonableness of some viewpoints, arguments, and conclusions
Explain how and why humans can incorporate non-rational mental processes into critical thought

• Bias and Viewpoints

Logic In Real Life

One of the most important skills you can cultivate as a critical thinker is the ability to think objectively about an issue. Critical thinkers are disciplined, open-minded, methodical, aware of their own viewpoints, and willing to be persuaded by reason. By integrating these traits into your everyday decision making, you can become a stronger critical thinker and improve in making sound decisions.

Even when faced with irrefutable facts, some people cannot accept a viewpoint that is different from their own. However, if you use organization and analysis and follow proper reasoning steps when evaluating an argument, you will not be swayed by even the most ingrained assumptions. Look for evidence that comes from reliable and unbiased sources, such as educational organizations, university websites, or research journals. Even then, you must ensure this material has not been slanted, such as having a purpose that is not strictly educational and neutral. Evidence for research, for instance, can be cherry-picked to provide substantiation for almost any agenda.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify problems, issues, or consequences within a body of evidence
Evaluate problems, issues, or consequences raised within a body of evidence
Determine several possible outcomes for a single problem
Choose among possible outcomes for soundness for a single problem
Describe the importance of focus and organization in decision-making
Distinguish between rational, reasonable viewpoints and those that are not
Describe the role discipline plays in evaluating problems
Explain why unreflective views tend to be biased or unreasonable

• Logic In Real Life

Using Your Voice

In critical thinking, a case study is an examination of a single instance or event —a case. This case is analyzed in detail to draw conclusions that test the philosophical, moral, or legal intuitions of participants. Analyzing case studies helps you recognize your own viewpoints by highlighting your background assumptions. Several outcomes are always possible, and the way that one evaluates possible outcomes gives you important insights about your deepest convictions. This type of reflective thinking is often used in critical analysis. It includes all of the steps of critical thinking plus one extra step: you must look back and forth between the standards you seek to uphold and your current line of reasoning. You must check your conclusion to determine what fundamental beliefs led you to the conclusion and whether you arrived at it in an orderly, reasonable fashion.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Compare and contrast premises and conclusion in arguments
Describe the structure of an argument
Create premises to support a conclusion
Define the concept of reflective thinking
Recognize beliefs that are affected by a given statement, if that statement is accepted as true
Evaluate statements in the context of moral or legal cases
Describe the process of reflective thinking
Explain how one can provisionally accept statements for consistency in consideration with core beliefs
Analyze consistency of personal beliefs
Create a reasoned argument for a new belief

• Using Your Voice

Student Success

Goal Setting and Motivation

Students seek degrees in higher education for a variety of reasons. Honestly reflecting on your own values and goals is important in achieving academic success. Why did you decide to continue your education? Often the motivation is to find a good job with a high salary. Perhaps you have a genuine interest in learning more about a particular subject, or you simply hope to fulfill a family expectation. Recognizing that your academic success depends on how you approach your studies is key. Reaching out to others will also prove very valuable and will help you identify interests and avoid possible pitfalls.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain three keys to academic success
Analyze the relationship between values, motivation, and academic success
Write a personal mission statement
Analyze the characteristics of SMART goals

• Goal Setting and Motivation

Time Management

Every day, we make decisions about how to manage our time. Some daily tasks are nonnegotiable—they must be done. Others are flexible—you can decide if and when they get done. Planning is a skill you can learn. Effective scheduling can take many forms, but first you need to take a close look at how you spend your time. You can use an hourly time chart, a handwritten journal, or an electronic device. Sort tasks by priority, putting the things that must be done today first. Once you schedule your must-dos, you can fill the remaining time with whatever you choose.

Every successful businessperson relies on a calendar. Sometimes, though, you will find your schedule difficult. There are several pitfalls you must avoid: social networks, procrastination, ignoring deadlines, always saying yes, not asking for help, and neglecting to save time for yourself. It can be frustrating to admit to these distractions, but they will sap your time and energy.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify effective time management strategies
Explain the importance of prioritizing activities
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of various time management tools
Recommend strategies for avoiding time management pitfalls

• Time Management

Financial Literacy

It is important for you to make conscious decisions about earnings, spending, savings, and the use of credit. A well-prepared budget will guide you through these lean years and give you methods to pay off any incurred debt. You will have to be honest with yourself about tracking expenses, and you will need to set priorities for non-fixed spending. By defining your needs and wants, you will expose your values. Securing a credit card can be helpful for emergencies and for meeting short-term financial goals, but the negatives can outweigh the positives. Be sure you understand all the ramifications of high interest rates, late fees, and paying only the minimum amount due. These can quickly add debt on debt. Wise credit consumers know how to use a credit card to their advantage. To use credit wisely, start by following the 10 savvy credit rules presented in this resource.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define financial literacy
Explain the advantages of setting financial goals
Explain strategies for managing your finances
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using credit

• Financial Literacy

Creative Thinking, Critical Thinking, and Problem Solving

Learning how to approach a problem using critical and creative thinking skills will give you effective life skills that will soon become second nature. Start by clearly defining the problem, separating fact from fiction, and removing any biases and preconceptions. You then may want to discuss the problem with friends, colleagues, counselors, or another expert source. You will have to analyze their responses in a critical way and open yourself to all possible solutions by taking a few minutes to brainstorm. Think outside the box and look at the problem from different vantage points.

Successful people know how to turn problems into opportunities, find innovative uses for ordinary objects, and challenge the status quo. This is how to problem solve. Getting stymied by inaction is ineffectual and allows problems to keep us from reaching our goals.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Analyze steps in the critical thinking process
Use creative thinking techniques
Explain the value of using critical and creative thinking skills to solve problems

• Creative Thinking, Critical Thinking, and Problem Solving

Learning Preferences

People differ in the way they learn facts or pick up a skill. Some are better listeners than others. Some are better focused when reading, and some learn better by doing. There are at least three learning preferences or styles. Visual learners, who learn best by reading or viewing information, are often divided into two groups: visual-linguistic and visual-spatial learners. Auditory learners learn best when they hear the information, either by listening to a lecture or by discussing the information. Kinesthetic learners learn best when they are active in a learning situation— they learn by doing or moving. It is important that you recognize which learning style best describes you. You will probably find that although you have a dominant style, you may also have an affinity for one or both of the other styles.

Students do not always have a choice of teachers and may find themselves in a setting that is not comfortable for their learning style. There are strategies you can adopt to help you succeed in a resource, regardless of the instructor's teaching style. Once you have identified how you learn best, apply those specific tactics to your study regime. Success can be yours in any setting.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe different learning preferences
Determine your learning preferences
Recognize classroom and study tactics for different learning preferences

• Learning Preferences

Listening and Note-Taking In Class

One of the best learning techniques is to be an active listener. Stay engaged in the lecture and try to avoid distractions. Learn how to take effective notes without trying to write down everything the teacher says. You can take guided notes, make an outline, or use the Cornell notes system. You can modify any of these styles to meet your own needs. It takes more time than you probably first imagined to be a successful student. Consider the two to three for every one catchphrase: that's two to three hours of preparation for every one hour of class. This can be quite a commitment for a full-time student or a part-time student who is working, too.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe how to prepare for class
Explain techniques for active listening
Analyze characteristics of effective in-class notes
Compare different in-class note taking strategies

• Listening and Note-Taking In Class

Reading and Annotating

Learning to read effectively and efficiently is a must. You need to become an active reader and get involved in the textbook material. A way to do this is to use the SQ3R method: survey, question, read, recite, and review. It may seem time consuming at first, but you will reap the benefits at test time. Highlighting, annotating, and note taking are other techniques you should employ while reading a text.

Annotating will help you stay focused as you actively read. Using a pencil (you may want to erase notations later), write your comments or questions in the margins of the book. Star or check phrases or paragraphs that you want to go over again. Have you considered keeping a notebook beside you as you read? This is a good way to become an active reader. Reading and writing engage different parts of the brain at the same time, so you are doubling your efforts.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain the process of active reading
Describe highlighting and annotating techniques
Explain different strategies for taking notes from reading materials
Combine class and text notes

• Reading and Annotating

Studying, Memory, and Test- Taking

You may know a subject matter but have difficulty passing a test. The good news is that there are proven strategies you can learn to make the testing process more agreeable. The studying process involves managing time, setting goals, and actively reading the material. When settling down to study, find a quiet and comfortable spot, free from distractions. Look for clever ways to organize and remember facts. These mnemonic devices might include acronyms (for example, NASA), chunking, locations, personal connections, and sensory hints. Know as much about the style of the test as you can, and take practice tests if available. Before the test, get a good night's sleep and be sure to have something to eat. Arrive at the test site on time. Being tired, hungry, or rushed will add to your anxiety. Look through the test before you begin, and note the time allotted if it is a factor. Read the test questions carefully and be prepared to show that you have mastered the material.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe effective study habits
Identify various memory strategies for studying
Analyze strategies for taking different types of tests

• Studying, Memory, and Test- Taking

Communicating and Teamwork

Recognizing differences in message content, audience, and format gives you an advantage. Remember that your tone comes through in spoken and written communiqués. Make sure it is the one you want to convey. Effective communication is the cornerstone of effective teamwork, and it is doubtful that you can get through life without at least one group project. Some people are comfortable as team players, whereas others really prefer to work alone. It is important to recognize varying perspectives on a topic and consider how these may advance or hinder the work. Each team member should have a specific role in the project. If conflict arises, keep the end goal or product in mind. Practice civility, even when stressed, and treat each person fairly. Accept the final product knowing you did your best.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain how to adjust your communication to suit your audience
Recommend best practices for forming and participating in teams
Explain ways to manage conflict in one-on-one and team settings

• Communicating and Teamwork

Information Literacy

Do some research. Check your sources. Insist on credibility, reliability, and accuracy. These strategies are all part of information literacy. You use them for all research projects, whether for class, your job, or personal use.

When searching online, don't overlook specialized search engines, and ask yourself if the information you find is reliable, current, and accurate. The web address can be a clue to credibility. Commercial sites generally use .com and may be less accurate than .gov and .edu addresses. Be especially careful of .org sites. Does the author or site have a particular agenda and only post one point of view? This could be a red flag. Statistics are often important to your conclusion, but you need to be cautious about how they are interpreted and check your sources. Is it possible the statistics have been manipulated to support a particular point of view? A librarian is a reliable source of information and can point you in the right direction for credible, current source material. As you put your report together, be sure to follow all of the rules regarding citing sources and avoid plagiarism and copyright violation.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain information literacy
Describe strategies for finding appropriate information sources
Explain what makes a source reliable, credible, current, and accurate
Explain how to use sources ethically

• Information Literacy

Staying Balanced: Stress Management

It is important to be aware of what causes you stress and your typical reactions. By realizing that stress—whether a minor inconvenience or a major life upset—is part of the human condition, you acknowledge the need to be prepared to deal with whatever life brings. As you learn and practice effective ways to deal with stress, life's little inconveniences will be less imposing, and you will be better prepared to deal with the larger stressors that may intersect with your plans. Reach out to your family, friends, or a counselor to help you deal with stress. A strong network will support you and offer solutions you may not have considered.

Don't let stress take a toll on your health, happiness, and success. Recognize it, analyze it, and make a plan to deal with it.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify major stressors that affect students
Identify personal stressors
Analyze your reaction to personal stressors
Recommend tips for managing stress

• Staying Balanced: Stress Management

Career Exploration

Assessment tools can help to expose your hidden talents and verify your strengths. Doing some research can help you identify the qualifications and job availability of different vocations that interest you. Career fairs might highlight a career path new to you. Look beyond the obvious, join professional organizations, and search for internships. When you are ready, write your résumé. Remember that many skills you have acquired can be adapted to a variety of situations. Show how you are dependable and responsible and can manage conflict. Above all else, when searching for a job, network with others. Build relationships in your field of interest and make connections through family, friends, and school contacts.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe careers related to your interests
Explain the key strategies for exploring a career
Recommend strategies for networking that enhances career exploration and growth
Create a resume

• Career Exploration

American History I

American Origins and Early Development

You have probably heard the saying "Rome was not built in a day." While this idiom explains that things cannot be done instantly and require patience, its literal truth most certainly applies to the foundation of America. Exploration and settlement of the New World was not a simple process. Events taking place on three different continents shaped the settlement of the New World. Even though present-day technology has made the world smaller than ever before, the forces that shaped history centuries ago are still in play today. To fully understand the origins of America, you will examine the civilizations that existed before European conquest of North America and factors that led to the exploration of the New World. You will also view maps that illustrate which countries laid claims to certain locations in the New World.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Compare major civilizations in pre-conquest America
Discuss the effects of the Agricultural Revolution on pre-conquest American societies
Explain how world events between 600 and 1600 influenced New World exploration
Identify important European explorers of the New World
Explain the significance of the Protestant Reformation on the English New World settlements in North America

• American Origins and Early Development

Colonial Religion, Economics, and Diversity

English migration to the New World was unlike that of the Spanish or French, who were more interested in building a centralized empire. In the seventeenth century, groups of different English settlers established diverse colonies in North America. Some migrated to the New World seeking land and opportunity; others were fleeing religious persecution and political unrest in England; and still others crossed the ocean in search of adventure. To comprehend the English method of colonization, you will analyze the reasons why various English groups went to the New World, how their beliefs shaped their settlements, and how the economy of each American colony affected the world economy. Charts and maps show which group settled each colony and why those colonies were established.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Discuss the motivation and rationale for early European settlement
Examine the role of religion in the Colonies
Describe the diversity among the three colonial regions (South, Middle Colonies, New England) in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
Describe the effect of the world market economy on the American colonies
Explain how the diversity of each colony affected its role in the world economy

• Colonial Religion, Economics, and Diversity

Colonial Opportunity and Oppression

The cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity of the settlers created the foundation for the melting pot America is today. Although there were many benefits to life in the New World, the American colonies faced hardships during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. To fully understand how the colonists' relationship with England turned sour, it is necessary to explore the colonists' way of life in each region. You will also trace the growth of the colonies and analyze the imperial wars that took place during the eighteenth century.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the challenges faced by immigrants during the eighteenth century
Analyze race and freedom in British America in regard to labor and law
Describe the economic effects of England's actions on the American colonies during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
Discuss the demographic growth of British American colonies
Locate the Spanish borderlands of the eighteenth century
Explain how the Enlightenment impacted American culture
Discuss religious revivals in American society
Describe the effect of imperial war on the British American colonies

• Colonial Opportunity and Oppression

The American Revolution

Centuries of fighting among European powers spilled over into the colonial experience. While American colonists coveted and emulated the culture of England, political relations with the succession of monarchs that ruled England became strained until they came to a breaking point. American independence is not only about the war that started in 1775; it's about the events leading up to that moment. The colonists began to detest English rule and the power England tried to wield over the American colonies through taxation. This power struggle led to colonial acts of rebellion, such as the Boston Massacre and Boston Tea Party. Once the battles began, it was still another year before the colonists formally declared their independence from England in 1776. When the war finally ended in 1781, a new, fragile nation was born.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Examine the political structure of colonial society
Identify the steps toward colonial independence
Describe the significance of the key battles during the American Revolution
Describe the effect of Loyalists on the American Revolution

• The American Revolution

The Republican Experiment

If contemporary expressions were applied to the period after the Revolutionary War, Americans might have thought, "Okay, we won the war! But now what?" Unfortunately, the answer to this question was not clear cut and varied from person to person. The atmosphere was politically uncertain. In hindsight, the central issues were how to incorporate and enforce order, liberty, prosperity, and equality into the new nation; however, what those principles meant to the developing nation was a matter of individual opinion. To fully understand how America dealt with post-revolution change, you will need to examine the republican philosophies that were common at the time and how these beliefs were expressed in the framing of the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution. These two important documents in the history of the United States share similarities but also contain key differences.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the effect of the states' experiments with representative democracy on the Articles of Confederation
Discuss the emergence of a new national government
Discuss the struggle over and path toward constitutional ratification

• The Republican Experiment

The Violence of Party Politics

Consider the power of words in the context of an address—specifically, how to address the new president. Hearkening back to his English roots, one senator suggested "His Highness, the President of the United States and Protector of their Liberties." In the new nation, however, pragmatism trumped grandiosity. George Washington would answer to "Mr. President." This seemingly minor issue foreshadows later debates over the proper roles and powers of the new United States government. To fully comprehend these issues and debates, you will need to understand the political dissent within the Federalist Party that led to a peaceful changing of power in the presidency. An in-depth timeline of important events that took place in the New World dating back from the preconquest days to the election of 1800 reveals what led to these political changes.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Examine the tension between the Federalists and the Democratic Republicans in the 1790s
Discuss the early presidents' roles in forming the new government
Describe America's differing opinions on foreign affairs during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries
Explain the importance of the election of 1800
Label a timeline with significant American historical events from pre-conquest America to America in 1800

• The Violence of Party Politics

Nationalism and White Men's Democracy

During his seventh annual message to Congress in 1823, President James Monroe, as part of the Monroe Doctrine, proclaimed: "...as a principle in which the rights and interests of the United States are involved, that the American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers..." This declaration of U.S. foreign policy advising Europe to stop intervening in the Western Hemisphere exuded the sense of U.S. nationalism that was present in foreign affairs during the first half of the nineteenth century. This pride was also found in American culture, economy, and politics. The United States grew by leaps and bounds in the years after the Revolutionary War ended in 1781and again after the War of 1812 because of various treaties, annexations, and purchases. This period in the nineteenth century is sometimes referred to as American Expansionism. It is during this time that a market economy emerged, and the notion of democracy began to take hold.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the ways in which America expanded and migrated into the vast lands of North America
Analyze the effects transportation had on migration
Discuss the effects of the emerging market economy on the new nation
Analyze the role of politics on nation building during the nineteenth century

• Nationalism and White Men's Democracy

Race, Gender, and Class In The Old South

Andrew Jackson construed the term democracy to mean equality of opportunity. Yet two sectors of the American populace were systematically and relentlessly excluded from this definition. Native Americans and African Americans (slaves and free blacks) were denied opportunities, such as land and suffrage, enjoyed by white men. Women were also equally excluded from these opportunities and continued to be until many years later. During the first half of the nineteenth century, an elite group of whites dominated Southern society and profited from the labor of black slaves. An in-depth look at Southern society—including an examination of the lives of slaves, free blacks, slaveholding whites, and yeoman farmers—reveals the complicated relationship the United States had with the institution of slavery.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Examine the social, economic, and political relationships within Southern society
Discuss the role of gender in Southern society
Discuss the role of class in Southern society Examine the "profitability" issue from 1793 to 1860
Describe the role that slavery played in the antebellum Southern economy and the national economy

• Race, Gender, and Class In The Old South

Pursuit of Perfection and Age of Expansion

As America became more populated and available land decreased, the desire to expand increased. In fact, some Americans no longer simply believed they should expand westward; they believed it was their destiny to expand across the continent. But this desire to expand was not simply for acquiring new land. Americans turned to evangelical Protestant revivals, which emphasized moral improvement, in search of a new meaning for the desire to expand. During the 1820s and 1830s, America focused on exploring religious and domestic subjects. Given the number of people who journeyed to the New World seeking freedom of religious expression, it is no surprise that religion played a major role in the lives of early Americans. These religious movements would lead to reform movements, both at the domestic and institutional level.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify the common themes among antebellum religious movements
Describe the effect of the cult of domesticity on the American family
Examine the effects of institutional reform on Antebellum America
Analyze the effects of westward expansion on Antebellum America
Discuss the role of Manifest Destiny in the Mexican-American War

• Pursuit of Perfection and Age of Expansion

The Sectional Crisis

In mid-nineteenth century America, evangelicalism arose in effort to purify religion and also the people who espoused it. The belief in Manifest Destiny, the divine obligation to expand U. S. borders from sea to sea, prompted a war with Mexico and resulted in the annexation of Texas. Acquiring new territories also brought light to the issue of slavery: Should these new lands be declared free states or slave states? To understand America's division on the issue of slavery, you must explore how American leaders handled the issue in the newly acquired territories. The differences in attitudes on slavery between the North and the South helped fuel the events that led to the Civil War.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Analyze how the pre-war U.S. government attempted to alleviate sectional tensions through legislation
Discuss the effects the Second Party system had on government policies in the 1850s
Discuss the different views on slavery
Identify the differences between the cultures of the North and South

• The Sectional Crisis

Secession and The Civil War

The division between the North and South had grown deeper by 1860. Opportunities for conflict arose as huge tracts of newly acquired land in the West underwent the process of admission to the Union. The question remained—should this new land be admitted as free states or slave states? This issue inflamed debate on both sides and with President Lincoln's election, culminated in South Carolina's secession from the Union. More states seceded, leading to open warfare. The Civil War pitted brother against brother, as friends and family members fought one another over the issues of slavery, state's rights, and the Republican Party. Though long and bloody, the Civil War set the United States on a path to dissolving the institution of slavery once and for all.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify the events leading to the Civil War
Examine the wartime strategies and expectations of the North and South
Describe the effect of the North's plan to free the slaves on the war effort
Describe the stages of the conflict between the North and South
Describe the immediate effects of the Civil War on American society

• Secession and The Civil War

The Agony of Reconstruction

Imagine you are a young child during the Civil War era and your father, who was a blacksmith before the war, is gone for four years. One day, he arrives home with news that the war is over. He hugs your mother, as you and your younger brother run to his side with elation and your mother starts to cry. After an hour of stories and great relief that he is home, your mother asks your father, "When will you need to return to work?" In the Civil War aftermath, Americans needed to work together to reunite the North and the South and rebuild the country's economy. The end of the Civil War also left citizens with question about what rights would be available to former slaves. The Reconstruction Era in the United States brought new changes and challenges to the fractured nation.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Differentiate between advocates of a minimal versus radical reconstruction policy
Describe the political, social, and economic challenges generated by the Reconstruction
Describe the reorganization of the postwar South
Examine the transition from slavery to sharecropping in the South Describe the Jim Crow laws
Label a timeline with significant American historical events from 1800 to the postwar Reconstruction

• The Agony of Reconstruction

American History II

The West: Exploiting An Empire

To colonists and new European settlers, the United States—particularly the West—was a beacon of growth, wealth, and opportunity. The open land and abundant resources available were great incentives to move to the lands beyond the Great Plains. However, settlers faced countless obstacles on their journeys, such as crossing rivers, climbing harsh mountains, and enduring both floods and droughts. Native American tribes were perhaps the greatest threat. By the late nineteenth century, white settlers had encroached upon most Native American lands, forcing them to relocate to inhospitable areas. In many cases, the settlers also forced European culture and values on them. While western settlement brought many benefits to the colonists, the expansion came at a cost. Settlers faced increasing conflicts between themselves and the displaced Native Americans. This was a time period filled with battles, wars, negotiations, and legislations that ultimately led to the shape of the United States today.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Analyze the collapse of Native American society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
Explain the motivation for settling the West
Describe the way of life in the newly settled West
Describe the new technology that revolutionized farming in the 1870s

• The West: Exploiting An Empire

Industrial Society

As a nation fueled by its own success, the United States was immersed in innovation and growth by the end of the 1800s. Within only a few years, machines and factories created both the latest technology and the most prominent cities. The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are heralded as a great time in U.S. history. Free enterprise flourished and technology changed industries in ways no one anticipated. Railroads, telephones, oil, and steel all brought huge changes to American society—both positive and negative.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain the importance of the railroad in communication and transportation
Analyze the impact of technological innovation on late nineteenth and early twentieth century U.S. society
List the innovations leading to the Second Industrial Revolution
Describe the working environments of the early 1900s

• Industrial Society

Toward An Urban Society and Political Realignments

At the end of the nineteenth century, the United States not only witnessed growth in innovation and technology but also growth in the cities. As the country became more industrial, it also became more urbanized. The possibilities of economic opportunity drew people to American cities like Chicago and New York. Although the city, with skyscrapers and streetcars, was an exciting place to be, it did not always live up to the golden promise that most people sought. The depression in the 1890s halted most of the nation and increased rural hostility toward urban life. Urbanization sparked shifts in social attitudes and encouraged reform, changing people's attitudes toward the government and unemployment.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the effects of cities on U.S. society
Describe social and cultural changes from 1877 to 1900
Explain the political tensions of the late nineteenth century
Identify the causes of the depression of the 1890s

• Toward An Urban Society and Political Realignments

Toward Empire and The Progressive Era

Imagine you are an urban worker in late nineteenth-century America. You wake up in the morning and head off to your job at a factory where you work long hours, six days a week. As you leave the factory for the day, you hear a coworker talking about starting an effort to unionize. You're intrigued, and you stop on your way home to buy the latest issue of McClure's Magazine and a newspaper to find out more about new American lands and the vileness of Spain. In the 1890s, the United States underwent dramatic expansion, building on the foreign policy of its former presidents, from Lincoln to McKinley. The public also encouraged business interests abroad; in turn, the United States established its presence in Latin America and the Pacific and strengthened the Navy. Differences over Cuba resulted in the war with Spain, establishing new colonies and—for the first time—an overseas empire. At home, industrialization expanded, attracting immigrants, women, and minorities. Improvements in the workplace were finally implemented through regulation and pressure.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Examine the effects of America's foreign policy on the world in the 1890s
Identify the causes of the war with Spain
Explain the changes in society resulting from the innovation of the Model T
Describe working conditions for women and children after the 1890s

• Toward Empire and The Progressive Era

From Roosevelt To Wilson In The Age of Progressivism

The people's power to influence the government has always been an American ideal. The Preamble of the U.S. Constitution encourages citizens to "promote the general welfare." Any movement or group aimed at bringing change to improve society can gain traction and ultimately shape laws and attitudes. In the early twentieth century, the Progressive Movement shaped the United States in nearly every aspect of society. As more people gathered into groups to push for change, politicians and legislators implemented new laws to provide better protection for workers and more rights for women. Presidents Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson all espoused the progressive spirit of reform in the ways that they believed were best, but major differences in opinion created a rift within one party. Even so, the people's demand for social change soon became law, bettering the lives of many Americans.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define Progressivism
Analyze the social movements of the late 1800s and early 1900s
Describe the reforms taking place at the municipal and state level
Examine the Roosevelt presidency as it relates to Progressivism
Compare the political ideologies of T. Roosevelt and Wilson

• From Roosevelt To Wilson In The Age of Progressivism

The Nation At War

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify the factors leading up to America's involvement in World War I
Describe America's preparations for and participation in World War I
Analyze the peace treaty process in relation to World War I
Label a timeline with significant American historical events from 1870 to 1920

• The Nation At War

Modern America and Franklin D. Roosevelt

The 1920s began as a time of optimism and prosperity for many people in the United States. The Great War was over and Americans were quick to turn their attention back to domestic affairs. Skyscrapers dotted city skylines as a sign of economic growth. Literature and music flourished, and the advent of the Harlem Renaissance centralized African American culture. However, the country failed to heed the warning signs of the biggest economic disaster it would ever face: the Great Depression. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, with his New Deal, spent the 1930s trying to help the nation recover.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Discuss the changing role of women in the 1920s and 1930s
Identify the events leading to the Great Depression
Evaluate the effects of the Great Depression on American society
Analyze the challenges for F. Roosevelt and the New Deal

• Modern America and Franklin D. Roosevelt

World War II and The Cold War

In his 1998 book, The Greatest Generation, Tom Brokaw, American broadcast journalist, wrote in reference to the men and women who survived the Great Depression and fought in World War II: "it is, I believe, the greatest generation any society has ever produced." The mid-twentieth century contained two of the greatest wars for Americans: World War II and the Cold War. During World War II, the United States united for combat like it never had before. When the war was finally over, the victory seemed just and well-deserved. However, America's establishment of itself as a leading military power meant it could never again escape involvement in international affairs. World War II left many problems in its wake and gave way to the Communist scare and paranoia of the Cold War. Three presidents presided during these twentieth-century conflicts: Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR), Harry Truman, and Dwight Eisenhower. Their policies and programs succeeded in varying degrees during postwar recovery.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Analyze America's role in the world between the two World Wars (1918—1941)
Describe the tensions leading to American involvement in World War II
Discuss the effects of World War II on American society and America's place in the world
Identify the causes of the Cold War
Explain how the end of World War II led to the Cold War

• World War II and The Cold War

Affluence and Anxiety In The 1960s

The end of World War II catapulted the United States into a period of affluence and comfort. The 1950s brought with it consumerism, the nuclear family, and domesticity. For many, this decade was an ideal time full of prosperity and the development of suburban culture. Beneath the 1950s shiny façade, however, lurked Communist fear and racial tension. The 1960s revealed huge changes and turmoil for the United States. Communism was still a major threat, a popular American president was assassinated, NASA landed astronauts on the moon, and Woodstock was held as a free, three-day music festival of peace. Pending war in Vietnam sparked protests while Bob Dylan sang, "The Times They Are A-Changin'." African Americans, women, and other minority groups vocalized their rights until the government began to act.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe post-World War II prosperity
Discuss the events leading to the Vietnam War
Discuss changes in American culture during the 1960s
Compare and contrast life in the 1950s with that in the 1960s
Analyze the challenges of black equality in the twentieth century
Explain the effects of the Cold War on the United States' domestic policy and foreign policy
Discuss the events leading to the Vietnam War
Analyze the challenges of black equality in the twentieth century

• Affluence and Anxiety In The 1960s

A Crisis In Confidence, 1969–1980

The Nixon administration's inordinate fear of political enemies led to numerous illegal activities by Republican officials and campaign supporters, including plans to break into the Democratic National Headquarters in the Watergate building. Although President Nixon was able to get the United States out of the quagmire of Vietnam, his fall after the Watergate scandal tarnished his reputation and affected U.S. politics for years to come.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the politics of Nixon's presidency
Discuss the Watergate scandal
Analyze the role of energy in the U.S. economy, with specific reference to oil
Describe how American society changed during the 1970s
Discuss the continuation of the Cold War

• A Crisis In Confidence, 1969–1980

The Republican Resurgence, 1980–1992

Ronald Reagan was a charismatic politician who stressed reduced government, balanced budgets, protection of family values, and peace through increased military spending. He capitalized on suburban middle-class resentment of increased taxes, welfare expenditures, and governmental regulation to emerge as the perfect Republican candidate. Reagan's friendly, relaxed manner and his masterful television appearances enabled him to present his conservative messages without sounding rigid. Radical changes to American social life in the 1970s added momentum to the conservative upsurge in the 1980s.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define Reaganomics
Analyze the impact of Reagan's policies at home and around the world
Analyze the impact of social dilemmas, such as AIDS and drugs, on society
Compare and contrast the Reagan and George H.W. Bush presidencies

• The Republican Resurgence, 1980–1992

At The End of The American Century

Between 1990 and 2000, the United States was characterized by a growing economy, changing demographics, and new foreign policy concerns. To understand the modern era, we must take a few steps back. In the 1970s and 1980s, Americans relocated to the South, West, and urban areas at a significant rate. An influx of immigrants, primarily from developing nations, also changed the country's demographics as the nation became more ethnically diverse. The 1990s saw an economic boom that emerged from increased consumption, consumer confidence, and technological innovations that made higher productivity possible without causing inflation.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe how America's population changed in the 1980s and 1990s
Discuss the "culture wars" and technological innovations of the 1990s
Analyze the Clinton administration's economic, foreign, and domestic policy initiatives
Describe the relationship between the Cold War and terrorism in the twenty-first century
Discuss the 9/11 terrorist attacks Discuss the reasons why Bush's popularity declined
Label a timeline with significant American historical events from 1920 to 2008

• At The End of The American Century

American Government

The Foundations of The Constitution

It's easy to see how we interact with the government when we vote for elected officials. But the government influences our lives much more than just in the way of elections. In the United States, the average citizen interacts with the government multiple times throughout the day. For example, it is the government that regulates the water that flows out of our shower heads, establishes the speed limits we must follow on the nation's highways, and ensures we have parks in which to recreate. By taking the time to consider the many ways in which Americans interact with the government in their day-to-day affairs, you can begin to better understand the vast role government plays in daily life.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Discuss the reasons and resulting compromises that led to the Constitution
Identify significant events in history that have impacted the development of and amendments to the U.S.
Analyze how the historical events shaped the U.S. Constitution
Outline the arguments for and against ratification of the U.S. Constitution Demonstrate the ability to analyze data
Analyze a current issue for impact on and influence by the cur

• The Foundations of The Constitution

Federalism

In 1863, eighty-seven years after the Declaration of Independence was signed, the Union and Confederate armies were fighting over whether the individual states or the federal government should have control over the country. Standing on the Civil War battleground in Gettysburg, where nearly fifty thousand soldiers had lost their lives defending their beliefs, President Abraham Lincoln delivered a two-minute speech that honored the dead and reaffirmed the power of the government created by the founding fathers "of the people, by the people, and for the people." Despite its brevity, the Gettysburg Address remains one of the most well-known speeches in U.S. history.

The battle over federalism has been a continual source of conflict throughout America's history, as evidenced by civil debate, political argumentation, and the elections that have shifted political power. The balance between state and federal power has changed several times, especially since the Industrial Revolution. With the influence of the Supreme Court, the influence of federal and state governments has continually shifted since the founding of the American nation.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Demonstrate the ability to analyze data
Define federalism
Explain how federalism has changed over time
Analyze a current issue for impact on and influence by the current political environment
Provide examples for the way in which state, local, and federal governments interact in the formation of public policy

• Federalism

Civil Liberties

The Patriot Act gave the government greater latitude to investigate individuals who potentially posed a threat to the United States. Some people felt that the premise of this new law challenged the rights and liberties outlined by the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights. As Americans came to understand the impact of the Patriot Act, many spoke out against it, including New York City, which joined with over 240 other communities in passing resolutions in protest of the Patriot Act. No one knows how the framers of the Constitution would have have reacted to an attack like 9/11, but a quote ascribed to Benjamin Franklin in 1775 warned that “They who can give up essential liberty to obtain a little temporary safety deserve neither liberty nor safety.” These civil liberties conferred by the Bill of Rights have been the subject of debate since they were originally adopted.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify the liberties guaranteed by the Bill of Rights
Demonstrate the ability to analyze data
Analyze a current issue for impact on and influence by the current political environment
Analyze how civil liberties in the United States have changed over time from the debates over ratification through today

• Civil Liberties

Civil Rights

The history of America's civil rights movement is rife with stories of oppressed individuals and minority groups. Women had to fight for the right to vote and for equal pay in the workplace. Immigrants to America have fought discrimination to establish their civil rights. Most recently, people with disabilities and same-sex couples have used grassroots activism and public appeals to ensure their constitutionally protected rights. Despite the founding fathers' belief in "liberty and justice for all," it has taken the will and effort of millions of citizens to ensure that belief extends to all Americans.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain the struggle for civil rights within the broader historical context
Explain the processes and strategies by which marginalized groups attain civil rights in the United States
Demonstrate the ability to analyze data
Analyze a current issue for impact on and influence by the current political

• Civil Rights

The Congress

The day-to-day routine of governing takes place primarily in the Capitol building-not in the Oval Office of the president. Congress originated constitutionally as a result of the Great Compromise of 1787. In recent years, the Republican and Democratic parties are indeterminately divided, making it difficult for legislation serving the average citizen to be passed into law. While the founding fathers envisioned an adversarial legislative branch that would use debate and analysis to reach compromises to serve the needs of the citizenry, at times the congressional standoff of recent years might seem to diverge from the framers' original intent. Governing a nation made up of 50 independent states is a complicated endeavor. Both the House and the Senate rely on organizing structures and rules to function, and the process used to pass a bill into law is intended to fully vet the legislation before it reaches the president's desk. Congressional leaders, such as the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate, have specific powers that govern the way they run their respective legislative bodies. Practical concerns, such as fund-raising and reelection, can often interfere with the job elected representatives aspire to do-serve the people.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain the structure of Congress
Differentiate between the four models of representation
Distinguish between the formal process and the real-world process by which a bill becomes a law
Demonstrate the ability to analyze data
Analyze a current issue for impact on and influence by the current political environment

• The Congress

The Executive Branch

The architects of the U.S. Constitution designed the role of the president to be limited in scope. The founders didn't want a king; rather, they wanted a chief executive to ensure laws were enforced, to be the commander in chief, and to negotiate with foreign leaders. Since the late 1700s, the role and powers of the U.S. president have expanded. Though the founders placed limits on the duties of the executive branch, presidents have increased their powers and the scope of the bureaucracy that the executive branch controls. Though running the country presents many political challenges, the influence of the president did help Ronald Reagan change the resource of world history in 1987.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Demonstrate the ability to analyze data
Analyze a current issue for impact on and influence by the current political environment
Identify the powers afforded the president
Identify how the presidency has evolved over time
Explain the role of the federal bureaucracy in the public policy-making process
Explain how the federal bureaucracy has developed over time

• The Executive Branch

The Judiciary

The third branch of government, the judiciary, rules on criminal and civil cases to determine how the law is applied and whether one party is guilty or not guilty of a charge. America has an adversarial system in which two opposing sides make their case to a jury and the presiding judge serves as the referee. State and federal courts have different structures and address separate laws, though they often overlap. The federal judiciary deals primarily with federal laws. Only one court in the land-the Supreme Court-is charged with specifically determining the constitutionality of laws and ruling on lower court decisions based in constitutional law. Two centuries later, decisions handed down by the Supreme Court are often controversial. It is the role of the court to address issues of constitutionality in every case it hears, but what happens when there's no clear directive in the Constitution and the court must render a decision? Some fundamental civil rights that are often taken for granted are not the result of civil rights laws passed by Congress, but of the judicial review used by the Supreme Court.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Outline the structure of the federal judiciary
Explain the process whereby a case makes it to the Supreme Court
Demonstrate the ability to analyze data
Analyze a current issue for impact on and influence by the current political environment
Outline the structure of the federal judiciary
Explain the process of appointing federal judges
Define judicial review
Explain the origins of judicial review
Compare the philosophies of judicial activism and judicial restraint

• The Judiciary

Political Socialization, Public Opinion, and The Media

James Madison, America's fourth president, warned against the "danger of disturbing the public tranquility by interesting too strongly the public passions." Like many of his fellow revolutionaries, Madison believed public officials should shape public opinion rather than respond to it. He did not necessarily trust the desires of the majority, fearing that public passion and opinion could easily lead to poor choices for the nation. While the U.S. Constitution espoused freedom, liberty, equality, and individualism, common citizens could only directly elect their leaders in the House of Representatives.

The founding fathers designed the other key parts of this democratic government-the Senate, the Supreme Court, and the presidency-to be chosen by members of government and not by American citizens. While the Constitution has been amended to put more electoral power in the hands of the American people, the growth of the media over the past 100 years has equally empowered citizens with access to information. Freedom of the press is articulated clearly in the First Amendment. Its purpose-to help foster an informed electorate-continues to be realized as the founding fathers had hoped. Though bias and the manipulation of public opinion are problematic issues, the political socialization of most Americans takes place close to home-through family, friends, and the educational system.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define political socialization
Explain the key components of American political culture
Demonstrate the ability to analyze data
Analyze a current issue for impact on and influence by the current political environment
Identify agents of political socialization
Analyze how the media affects public policy

• Political Socialization, Public Opinion, and The Media

Interest Groups and Public Opinion

The participation of the people is the core of all democracies, and in the , citizens band together as interest groups to influence the laws and policies of local, state, and national government. Differing from political parties, interest groups seek to persuade both the public and the elected officials of the importance of their group's issue or concern. Organizations, such as the National Rifle Association, Greenpeace, and teachers' unions, represent American citizens who are attempting to make their voices heard in the din of national politics. While many interest groups' agendas clash with each other, this public debate is precisely what the founders envisioned in a democracy. One of the core values of the democracy is the right of all citizens to organize and to vote. These rights enable the citizenry to directly express their views on issues or indirectly express their views through the government officials they elect. Today, the right to vote is often taken for granted. The struggles of women during the women's suffrage movement and the struggles of African Americans from the days of slavery right through to the civil rights movement are buried in the history of the last two centuries.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the roles and purposes of the various kinds of interest groups
Explain the historical evolution of interest groups over time
Analyze the role of interest groups in the public-policy process
Differentiate between inside and outside lobbying
Demonstrate the ability to analyze data Analyze a current issue for impact on and influence by the current political environment

• Interest Groups and Public Opinion

Parties, Campaigns, and Elections

The 2000 presidential election between Vice President Al Gore and Texas Governor George W. Bush was an unusual event in American electoral history. On Election Day in Florida, the difference between the total numbers of votes cast for each candidate was fewer than 1,000. After Election Day, several problems were uncovered with the voting process. The examination of election results dragged on for many weeks as Florida election officials recounted votes. The Bush campaign went to court to try to stop the recount, while the Gore campaign asked the state courts to allow it to continue.

For the first time in U.S. history, the presidency was decided by the U.S. Supreme Court, when the court ordered the state to stop the recount. Months after the election, an independent count revealed that Vice President Gore would have won Florida and the presidency by fewer than 200 votes. One of the goals of America's election process is to ensure the legitimacy of the process so that the person elected is acknowledged as the fair winner. While other controversial elections exist in America's past, the fact that five of the nine Supreme Court justices effectively chose the president created a rocky start to George W. Bush's first term in office.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Differentiate between the roles of political party-in-government, party-in-electorate, and party organization
Explain the changing role of political parties over time
Explain how campaigns have changed over time
Explain the role of money in elections
Demonstrate the ability to analyze data
Analyze a current issue for impact on and influence by the current political environment
Differentiate between the different kinds of elections

• Parties, Campaigns, and Elections

Social and Economic Policy

During the 2010 midterm elections, the Tea Party gained prominence by protesting taxes, the recently passed health care reform act, and the overall perceived intrusive nature of the federal government. Spotted in some crowds were signs that read, "Keep your hands off my Medicare." Ironically, Medicare is a federal health program paid for by worker contributions and taxes collected from individuals and corporations. This example highlights the disconcertion associated with social and economic policies, because the same Tea Party protestors opposed to excessive federal intrusion and allegedly high taxes are the direct beneficiaries of one of the country's largest public policy initiatives. Citizens, lobbyists, think tanks, politicians, and interest groups all have the guaranteed right to petition their government; enacting a public or social policy is where all the hard work begins.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Analyze the processes by which public policy is made
Identify the stages in the public policy-making model
Apply the public policy-making model to selected cases
Demonstrate the ability to analyze data
Analyze a current issue for impact on and influence by the current political environment
Identify key areas of revenue and expenditure in the federal budget

• Social and Economic Policy

Foreign Policy and National Security

Upon his exit from office, President Eisenhower warned the nation, "In the councils of government, we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military industrial complex. The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist." Eisenhower foresaw the possibility that militarism, and the economic benefits derived from making machines of war, had the potential to dominate America's foreign policy and its economy. In 2011, 20% of the entire U.S. budget (more than $700 billion) was spent on the military, representing one of the largest portions of taxes dedicated to a single element of the federal budget. By no means an isolationist, Eisenhower was prescient in his warning-the industries that supply the military have increasingly influenced American foreign policy.

Promoting American political values, such as democracy, freedom, and human rights, has been a centerpiece of U.S. foreign policy for more than two centuries. Some would argue that the humanitarian intervention the United States has embarked on has been the most effective and long lasting of its international efforts. The president sets the foreign policy priorities for the country with the input of advisers, cabinet secretaries, and members of Congress. While presidents prefer their foreign policy to be humanitarian, every commander in chief is faced with the difficult decisions regarding war and military deployment.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain how the key tenets of American culture are expressed in foreign policy
Apply the public policy-making model to selected cases
Demonstrate the ability to analyze data
Analyze a current issue for impact on and influence by the current political environment
Explain the role of the president, the federal bureaucracy, and the Congress in making foreign policy

• Foreign Policy and National Security

English Composition

The Writing Process

The writing process is an important tool for all writers, regardless of the type of writing or discipline, because it helps them attain the control and focus needed to create an effective composition. It acts as a guide to successful writing, granting writers the structure required for generating ideas, organizing and developing main points, and refining better drafts.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify the steps of the writing process
Describe the purpose of each step of the writing process
Identify steps of the writing process in examples of writing
Complete a practice writing exercise using the steps of the writing process
Describe the different parts of speech

• The Writing Process

Paragraphs

In writing, words combine to form sentences, and sentences join to form paragraphs. Yet the creation of an effective paragraph is much more than the mere union of sentences. A body paragraph supports the larger ideas of the entire essay. It has direction, unity, coherence, and support. The most effective pieces of writing incorporate well-structured body paragraphs that support a thesis statement.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the different types of sentences
Recognize sentence types in sample writing
Identify misplaced and dangling modifiers
Identify sentence errors
Define parallelism
Use parallelism in writing
Explain the importance of thesis statements
Define a body paragraph
List the characteristics of effective body paragraphs
Compose the topic sentence of a body paragraph
Describe the importance of the topic sentence of a paragraph
Recognize effective body paragraphs
Write an effective body paragraph
Identify transitions within paragraphs

• Paragraphs

Critical Thinking Skills

Success in any academic field, especially in higher education, depends on a student's effort. Developing critical thinking and study skills is essential for making the most of your time spent learning.

By developing effective study skills, such as honing your techniques for discovering and evaluating information, you will be able to enhance your writing in any academic field. Although these skills are necessary in academics, critical thinking, reading comprehension, and other areas, you can apply study skills to all activities, both personal and professional.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe how reading for comprehension contributes to effective writing
List the critical thinking skills necessary to the writing process
Describe how critical thinking and analysis contribute to effective writing
Analyze the use of visual images in a variety of texts
Describe the elements of an argument
State the rules for comma use in the English language

• Critical Thinking Skills

Introduction to College Writing

When writing, you must know your audience. This is never truer than when you write an academic paper.

The goals of academic writing are to construct knowledge through questioning, research, and communication and to contribute to the educational community. Examining the unique aspects of this form of writing can help you develop the skills you need to write effectively within any academic setting.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Compare features of academic writing and professional writing
Describe characteristics of academic writing
Compare and contrast writing from different media
State the rules for end mark use in the English language

• Introduction to College Writing

Introduction to Essays

An essay consists of three components: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. Effective essay writing depends on a firm understanding of the elements of each of these components.

The opening paragraph, or introduction, of an essay is the first impression your readers have of you and your ideas. The body paragraphs contain the majority of your essay's content. Most often, these paragraphs include factual information and inferences made by the writer, partnered with additional material that supports his or her claims. Lastly, the conclusion of the essay wraps everything up and communicates the significance of the topic to the reader. A strong concluding paragraph leaves the reader feeling satisfied with no unanswered questions.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

List characteristics of effective essay writing
Describe the key elements of an essay
Describe different types of introductions
Write an effective and grammatically correct essay
Identify common structural errors and flaws in logical reasoning in essays
Identify the characteristics of effective body paragraphs
Describe different types of conclusions
State the rules of colon and semicolon use
Discriminate between proper and improper use of commas, end marks, colons, and semicolons in writing samples
Edit sentences to correct improper use of punctuation
Apply punctuation rules to compose correctly punctuated sentences
Describe other common punctuation marks used in writing

• Introduction to Essays

Writing a Summary

When summarizing something in conversation, the summary is often sporadic and unrehearsed. However, writing a clear, effective summary in academics takes some planning. Usually, in the academic world, you write summaries to capture the main ideas of an article you have read, to highlight the plot points of a novel or other work of fiction, or to note the information you have researched for a paper or essay.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define summary
Describe five steps for writing a summary
Define paraphrasing
Describe the role of paraphrasing in writing a summary

• Writing a Summary

Research Writing

Research writing often requires more rigor than other academic assignments because you must compose your paper based on information found from outside sources and facts rather than just personal opinions. Although it may sound daunting or challenging, by following a few simple steps, you will be well on your way to writing a successful research paper.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the characteristics of a research paper
Identify the steps for writing a research paper
Apply the steps for writing a research paper
List potential resources for writing a research paper
Describe a Works Cited page and its appropriate use and style
List strategies for writing an effective research paper

• Research Writing

Writing in the Disciplines

In academic writing, you must follow specific steps and guidelines to craft an effective paper. From applied sciences to social sciences, natural sciences to humanities, each discipline has its own terminology, style, and guidelines for writing about the discipline.

Throughout your academic career, you will encounter a variety of different writing assignments. Each of your instructors will determine which type of formatting you use for recording notes, gathering evidence, writing, and citing your sources. You will use three primary style guides for academic writing, and by understanding the features of each, you will be better prepared to write research assignments for any academic discipline.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain how writing styles and formats change among academic disciplines
List the different formats and styles for research papers
Describe MLA style and when it should be used
Describe APA style and when it should be used
Describe Chicago style and when it should be used
Differentiate between the APA, MLA, and Chicago styles
Identify whether a style guide has been applied to a writing sample

• Writing in the Disciplines

Clarity and Style in Writing

Effective writing techniques—such as varied sentence structure, concrete details, and precise language—help you write clearly and convey your meaning. The fastest way to lose readers is to give them a muddled and unfocused piece of writing. The fastest way to grab readers' attention, and keep it, is to give them an organized piece of writing that makes every word count.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe emphatic writing
Apply strategies to achieve emphasis in writing
Describe ways to achieve variety and include details and varied word choice in writing
Explain appropriate language use for different purposes and audiences in writing
Explain the importance of clear and concise writing
Identify clear and effective writing styles in writing samples
Identify typical spelling problems
List rules for spelling
Identify incorrect spelling in writing samples
Apply the rules of spelling to correct spelling issues in writing samples

• Clarity and Style in Writing

Patterns of Writing: Description and Narration

A great storyteller uses craft and technique to take the listener to a different time and place. Essays come alive for your reader when they include description, narration, and examples. When you use these three writing tools, you show your reader a different world, tell your story succinctly, and present illustrations that make reading your work both informative and entertaining.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe different writing patterns and their uses
Define descriptive writing
Use description appropriately in writing based on purpose and intended audience
List guidelines for using description
Define narration
Use narration appropriately in writing based on purpose and intended audience
List guidelines for using narration
Use the hyphen correctly in spelling
Describe the proper use of hyphens

• Patterns of Writing: Description and Narration

Patterns of Writing: Classification

Sometimes a topic is so broad that the only way to do it justice is to examine it piece by piece. Classification essays are a way of splitting a whole into its component parts, categorizing those parts, and discussing each one with regard to a similar purpose or characteristic. Writing an effective classification essay requires a blend of writing, research, and critical thinking skills. In classification essays, as with any essay you write, a strong understanding of capitalization rules helps indicate to your reader whether you are writing about Communism or communism, a president in general or a specific president. Likewise, a strong understanding of character styles adds specificity to your writing by letting your reader know, for example, whether you are referencing a title of a magazine or an article within a magazine to cite your evidence.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define classification
Use classification appropriately in writing based on purpose and intended audience
List guidelines for using classification
State the rules for capitalization, titles, and subtitles
Describe the use of italics and underlines

• Patterns of Writing: Classification

Patterns of Writing: Comparison and Contrast

Academic writing also employs comparison and contrast. When writing a comparison essay, writers present information in a way that highlights similarities between multiple things, such as the causes and outcomes of World War I and World War II. When writing contrast essays, writers highlight differences, such as the dissimilarities between living on a farm and living in a city.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Define comparison and contrast
Use comparison and contrast in writing based on purpose and intended audience
List guidelines for using comparison and contrast
Categorize sample writings by patterns type
List the rules for abbreviating

• Patterns of Writing: Comparison and Contrast

Research & Writing

Understanding Research

Effective research papers depend on the writer's ability to perform research. To learn more about the research and writing process, writers need to understand topic selection and the methods to use when developing a research question, statement, or hypothesis. Writers also need to know how to read academic sources to determine their credibility and gain a breadth of understanding surrounding their topic.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain the purpose of research
Identify how to narrow ideas through research
Identify strategies for comprehending research materials

• Understanding Research

Research Strategy

Even with hundreds of books, the time spent scanning pages for useful quotes, data, or facts still would not produce as much information as you can now find by performing a simple Internet search. Familiarizing yourself with Internet research strategies and search language can help you avoid wasting time reading non-authoritative information.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Explain how to develop a research strategy
Describe how to use appropriate research sources
Apply research methods to locate information on a given topic
Describe different search languages
Explain how search engines are used
Describe Internet research strategies

• Research Strategy

Live Sources

Live sources are those people whom we call experts; they are the ones who write the books and articles—or the ones about whom the books and articles are written. Understanding how to find experts and gain insights from them enables you to provide your readers with information not found in any other research medium. You will learn how to find experts, interview, and plan and conduct surveys as alternative research methods.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe how to find experts
Explain how to arrange and conduct interviews
Describe how to create interview questions
Describe how to take notes during the interview session
Explain how to incorporate survey results into research papers

• Live Sources

Working with Sources

When finding research material for a topic, you have a wide variety of choices. Books, magazines, and websites are just a few research sources you can use, and all of them are available at your school's library or in online databases.

Learning how to locate valuable sources takes patience and practice. Once you become familiar with the available inventory of reference books and the keywords needed to complete a successful Internet search, it becomes easier to find information. Determining what sources you want to use is key to getting the information needed for a successful paper. You will likely generate many questions during the research process. These questions will help you weed out the unnecessary information so that you only keep what you need.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Identify strategies for evaluating resources
List different methods for gathering information
Explain how to integrate resources into research writing
Describe different ways to document sources

• Working with Sources

Tools and Strategies for Avoiding Plagiarism

Plagiarism is a serious issue both in and out of academia; it is unlawful and unethical. Plagiarism occurs when a person takes someone else's work and claims it as his or her own. By not correctly documenting your sources in your notes, you set yourself up for the potential to commit plagiarism.

Understanding note-taking methods helps writers keep an organized record of their research and reduce potential time wasted retracing their steps. Proper note-taking strategies keep writers from accidentally stealing another writer's or researcher's work and increases their credibility and integrity.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe note-taking strategies
Explain how to use journal entries in note taking
Define plagiarism
Describe the consequences of plagiarism

• Tools and Strategies for Avoiding Plagiarism

Organizing an Essay

Writing a paper isn't an easy process; it takes time and concentration to translate research notes into a well-composed piece of work. Writers are expected to present the information in an engaging and fluid manner. Learning how to establish a thesis statement, organize supportive information, and follow the steps for drafting will improve your writing and guide you through the entire writing process.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe each step of the writing process
Explain how to create an outline
Describe the steps for writing the first draft
Identify transitional expressions to use between sentences and paragraphs
Describe the purpose of introductory, supporting, and concluding paragraphs
Write introductory, supporting, and concluding paragraphs

• Organizing an Essay

Revising and Editing Strategies

Writing often begins with one specific idea and then undergoes different stages in the writing process where it is heavily edited and compacted into a concise work meant to inform and inspire others. Writers must learn the skills needed to objectively review their own work and recognize where their content or composition falls short. Rereading and editing what you have written can help you pare down the wording and be economical with your language. Preparing multiple drafts allows all writers to filter out inconsistencies, adjust organization, and choose the most precise words to express their ideas.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Discuss the five strategies for revising
Describe the importance of structure in an essay
State the purpose for revising and editing
Describe methods for improving word choice
Explain how to improve sentences in a paragraph
Draft an essay
Revise an essay
Edit an essay

• Revising and Editing Strategies

MLA, APA, and Chicago Documentation Styles

Incorporating quotations and paraphrasing experts are effective ways to add validity to the arguments of your research paper. As a researcher, you need to properly document and cite your resources. The most common type of citation is MLA, or Modern Language Association style; it is used in the disciplines of humanities and the liberal arts fields of language and literature. Depending on the style your paper requires—MLA, APA, or Chicago—your notes may vary, but knowing what to take note on before starting the research process prevents the chance of incomplete citations.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe the formatting of the MLA style guide
Describe the MLA citation format
Differentiate between MLA, APA, and Chicago formatting

• MLA, APA, and Chicago Documentation Styles

Writing Styles and Formats

Writing style and format directly depend on the requirements outlined by the style guides associated with your disciplines. Citation requirements are dictated by all three style guides. Academic writers should familiarize themselves with these requirements to take efficient notes during their research. The stylized details and formatting requirements are also outlined in each style guide. You must understand how to apply these requirements to your paper before turning in your final draft.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Differentiate the appropriate documentation in sample writings for different disciplines
Differentiate the language, style, and format in sample writings for different disciplines
Describe strategies for writing in the different disciplines

• Writing Styles and Formats

Writing in the Humanities

One of the most common forms of writing in academia is writing for the humanities, or the study of the human condition. Unlike the applied sciences or social sciences, which seek to find a specified answer to a question, the study of humanities or liberal arts seeks to form questions that do not have concrete answers. Studying the humanities requires researchers to think analytically and critically about the world around them. To begin writing in this form, you will need to understand the tools to properly argue a topic and use the correct writing methods.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe how to narrow the focus of a topic in the humanities
Discuss the various methods of performing research
Describe how to create a thesis with a topic in the humanities
Explain the process of presenting a thesis in the humanities
Describe the style of writing needed for the humanities
Explain the type of documentation styles needed for the humanities

• Writing in the Humanities

Writing in the Social Sciences

The study of the social sciences typically includes the fields of anthropology, economics, education, history, political science, sociology, law, and psychology. When writing in these fields, you are often presented with a question that must be tested with a report of your findings. While this might be a completely different approach to writing for the humanities, writing within the social sciences requires a bit of hands-on observation to understand patterns and behavioral actions. The study of the social sciences typically includes the fields of anthropology, economics, education, history, political science, sociology, law, and psychology.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

Describe how to narrow the focus of a topic in the social sciences
Discuss the various methods of collecting data
Describe how to create a thesis with a topic in the social sciences
Explain the process of presenting a thesis in the social sciences
Describe the style of writing needed for the social sciences
Explain the type of documentation styles needed for the social sciences

• Writing in the Social Sciences

Writing in the Applied Sciences

As opposed to questioning the behaviors of humans or seeking an understanding of literature, the applied sciences seek to answer questions about the framework of life and encompass the disciplines of biology, chemistry, physics, engineering, mathematics, and computer science. Like all academic disciplines, the field of the applied sciences requires an analytical mind. But in applied sciences, writing requires a much different set of skills and practices than is needed for other writing assignments. In this field, applied math, graphs, charts, and theories all must be intertwined within a paper to answer a question.

This resource provides instruction for users to: