Education

Course Pass™ Online Classes

Early Childhood Education

HISTORY AND THEORIES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

For centuries, people have attempted to improve the care and education of young children. These efforts often required men and women to challenge prevailing wisdom and demonstrate innovative approaches. These historical figures contributed to the early childhood field by refining learning theories, developmental theories, and program models. Their contributions still serve as outstanding examples of how to best serve young children and their families. Learning more about historical figures in the early childhood education (ECE) field will inspire you and provide you with a firm foundation for your decision making as an ECE professional. Becoming familiar with their theories and programs will help you ascertain exactly where you stand as an ECE teacher. You may disagree with some ideas but want to incorporate others into your career.

As you learn about specific program models, you will notice that they share a common goal: evoking positive outcomes for children and their families. Each model demonstrates a sincere commitment to providing nurturing yet challenging learning environments for our youngest children.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Describe contributions of historical figures to the field of early childhood education
  • Compare the various theories of child development
  • Compare the various learning theories
  • Explain characteristics of early childhood program models
• History and Theories of Early Childhood Education

SPECIAL NEEDS AND CULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY

Many different kinds of learners enter early childhood education (ECE) classrooms. As an early childhood professional, you must try to meet the needs of all learners. Certain practices are especially designed to serve children who are culturally and linguistically diverse. Although these inclusive practices may target those with unique learning needs, they can benefit all children. For example, children who learn in an inclusive environment are less likely to bully those who are different and will be prepared for life in a diverse society.

Physical and interpersonal environments that are responsive to children's individual, linguistic, and cultural needs have specific characteristics. Responsive teachers will work with families and other professionals to determine needs and set appropriate goals. You will provide direct or specialized one-on-one instruction as needed, while also structuring the physical environment to accommodate children's learning styles.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Describe early childhood education inclusive practices
  • Analyze early childhood education interpersonal environments that are responsive to cultural, linguistic, and individual needs
  • Analyze early childhood education physical environments that are responsive to cultural, linguistics, and individual needs
  • Explain the terminology in special education
• Special Needs and Cultural and Linguistic Diversity

CURRENT ISSUES IN ECE: RESEARCH, TRENDS, AND POLICY

As an early childhood educator, it is vital to know the current issues and trends in the ECE field. Knowing how these trends impact children and their families, and you as an early childhood professional, will help inform your planning and teaching.

Providing quality education for children opens the door to many other issues and trends. High-quality ECE programs consider the whole child and use developmentally appropriate practices. They employ well-educated teachers and make sure they implement appropriate education for young children.

Research also shapes early childhood practices. Brain research indicates that young children are capable of learning at a very early age. Rich learning experiences and interactions with adults and peers promote optimal development. But what characterizes an experience or interaction as "rich"?

As an ECE professional, you know that research has emphasized the importance of early intervention for at-risk children. In your career, it will be critical to have a firm understanding of what research indicates about evidence-based instruction and its implications for early childhood stakeholders.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Identify current issues in early childhood education
  • Describe the current trends in early childhood education in terms of their impact on children, families, and early childhood professionals
  • Analyze the implications of research on early childhood education
• Current Issues in ECE: Research, Trends, and Policy

GUIDING YOUNG CHILDREN

Guidance strategies facilitate appropriate behavior in young children. Building learning communities in early childhood education (ECE) classrooms nurtures positive relationships between teachers and children. Certain guidance strategies impact specific behaviors. For example, when teachers speak softly, children often do the same. Logical consequences teach children that their behaviors have outcomes. Teachers can anticipate and prevent undesirable behaviors through observation, documentation, and analysis.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Explain the guidance strategies that facilitate appropriate behavior in early childhood
  • Identify how individual guidance strategies impact specific behaviors in children
  • Determine how to use a variety of guidance strategies in the early childhood education classroom
  • Promote practices that support the development of self-regulation skills
  • Determine the effectiveness of early childhood environments in promoting appropriate behavior and reducing inappropriate behavior of children
• Guiding Young Children

EFFECTIVE TEACHING: DAP, ENVIRONMENTS, AND PLAY

ECE professionals implement strategies and design learning environments to foster children's physical, cognitive, and social/emotional development. The philosophical framework of developmentally appropriate practice DAP is an influential factor in ECE settings. Environments that foster learning and development in all domains have specific characteristics that are supported by DAP. Play remains one of the most important developmentally appropriate practices. Different types of play provide a context for DAP, and effective teachers support children's playful learning.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Explain the concept of developmentally appropriate practices
  • Explain how DAP considers the age-related developmental characteristics of young children
  • Explore how DAP addresses individual differences
  • Describe how DAP is responsive to social and cultural contexts
  • Apply developmentally appropriate teaching practices to learning in the developmental domains
  • Describe how DAP influence the arrangement of the learning environment
  • Critique the application of DAP to the early childhood education environment
  • Explain the role of play in developmentally appropriate environments
• Effective Teaching: DAP, Environments, and Play

HEALTH, SAFETY, AND WELL-BEING OF ALL CHILDREN

Healthy practices promote wellness, good nutrition, and cleanliness in early childhood education (ECE) settings. Quality programs have policies in place to support children's overall wellness. Assessment is one health and safety measure. It includes inspections of indoor and outdoor environments and daily health checks for children. Teachers play a vital role by exhibiting positive attitudes and promoting healthy lifestyles.

Certain qualities promote safety in both indoor and outdoor ECE environments. These considerations should be well balanced, given that it is also important for children to engage in challenging activities. Providing developmentally appropriate opportunities for safe risk-taking and growth builds self-awareness in children.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Describe practices that promote health, good nutrition, and cleanliness in early childhood settings
  • Analyze the qualities of early childhood environments that promote safety in indoor and outdoor settings
  • Explain practices that promote the health, safety, and well-being of all children
  • Justify the role of play in healthful development and learning
• Health, Safety, and Well-Being of All Children

FAMILY, SCHOOL, AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS

Families are children's first teachers. They provide the most influential context for growth and development. As an early childhood educator, you must examine family structures of the children in your care. All family structures have the potential to support children's growth and development. You should learn to identify family dynamics that affect children's learning, and consider the implications these dynamics have for early childhood education (ECE) teachers.

Meaningful family involvement is important in school programs, but what defines it? You can learn about ways to include all families in school settings, highlighting the benefits for children, parents, and teachers. Teachers need to employ useful communication techniques—including different formal and informal approaches—such as conferences, home visits, newsletters, and daily chats. These contribute to reciprocal partnerships between families and teachers. Finally, it is important to understand the ECE teacher's role in connecting families to community resources.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Describe diverse family structures and impacts on family life that challenge children's learning
  • Describe the benefits of creating positive relationships and meaningful family involvement
  • Describe types of effective communication techniques for involving families in early childhood programs
  • Explain the role of the early childhood education teacher in connecting families to community resources
• Family, School, and Community Partnerships

EFFECTIVE PRACTICE AND CURRICULUM STANDARDS

Curriculum plays a pivotal role in early childhood education (ECE) programs and practices. Accepted standards for curriculum promote recommended practices in ECE, such as learning, content, and performance standards. Other curriculum guidelines have been established by national and state organizations, including the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). Program standards should influence the way you implement your early childhood curriculum.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Describe the various standards that promote recommended practices
  • Explain how program quality standards impact curriculum development
  • Explain how the developmental domains and knowledge of content areas relate to curriculum development
  • Describe the characteristics of effective curriculum
  • Explain how intentional teachers plan and implement curriculum
• Effective Practice and Curriculum Standards

CHILD DEVELOPMENT

As an early childhood educator, you must understand typical age-related developmental accomplishments for each age group: infants, toddlers, preschoolers, kindergartners, and children in the primary grades. The importance of developmental knowledge of infants and toddlers when the pace of children's growth is the fastest is critical. However, a deep understanding of child development is equally necessary for teachers of children in preschool, kindergarten, and the primary grades.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Describe the characteristics of children ages zero through age eight in each developmental domain
  • Describe the typical age-related developmental accomplishments for each age group, including infants and toddlers, preschoolers, kindergartners, and children in the primary grades
  • Explain how knowledge of child development impacts care and education of infants and toddlers
  • Explain how knowledge of child development impacts teaching for preschoolers
  • Explain how knowledge of child development impacts teaching of children in kindergarten
  • Explain how knowledge of child development impacts teaching of children in the primary grades
• Child Development

ASSESSMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

There are many different approaches used to assess young children. Observation, portfolios, interviews and conversations, and documentation are appropriate methods for evaluating children in early childhood settings. Each type of assessment has advantages and disadvantages. Your job is to discern which assessment methods you will use for specific purposes.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Describe the different approaches used to assess young children
  • Describe the advantages and disadvantages for various types of assessments in early childhood
  • Explain the positive contributions of documenting assessment results to teaching and learning
  • Explain how assessment findings shape decision making and influence teaching, learning, and early childhood program quality
• Assessment of Young Children

PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

As you explore the field of early childhood education (ECE), you will learn what it means to be an ECE professional. One aspect is ethical conduct. Professionals resolve the ethical dilemmas they encounter with a well-established code. Professionals also depend on evidence-based practices to inform their decision-making processes.

Advocacy has a central role in ECE. It means supporting or recommending changes to existing practices. You may be passionate about maintaining low teacher-student ratios. Or your commitment to social justice may inspire you to advocate for equitable benefits and compensation for ECE professionals. Whatever you choose, the importance of informed advocacy cannot be overemphasized. As an advocate, you expect to be taken seriously. Therefore, you really have to know your profession when you advocate for children, whether you lobby your senator or attend the local school board meeting.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Explain what it means to be an ECE professional: ethical conduct and using evidence-based practices
  • Describe the role of advocacy in the field of ECE
  • Explain ways early childhood professionals can contribute the development of policies that impact early childhood education
  • Explain what it means to be a culturally competent early childhood professional
• Professionalism in Early Childhood Education

Principalship

THE PRINCIPALSHIP: DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Principalship today requires the principal to act in a collaborative manner with all stakeholders, serving as an effective leader and facilitator in a variety of roles. These roles range from helping teachers with new curriculums and polishing lesson plans, to reaching out to students’ parents and organizing community events. In today’s era of accountability and standards-based reform, school principals must possess the knowledge, skills, beliefs, and dispositions necessary to be both effective leaders and managers.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Compare management and leadership theories related to principalship
  • Explain the effect of inherited authority on a principal's job responsibilities
  • Explain how a principal can stay current on trends and research in education
  • Explain the role of ISLLC and ELCC standards in principalship
  • Determine the responsibilities of a principal
  • Outline the principal's job duties
• The Principalship: Duties and Responsibilities

BUILDING SCHOOL CULTURE

• Building School Culture

SUPERVISION VS. EVALUATION

• Supervision vs. Evaluation

CURRICULUM ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Determine evidence-based teaching and intervention strategies for increasing student achievement and teacher effectiveness
  • Compare formative and summative assessments in measuring student learning
  • Determine teacher planning skills that align curriculum, instruction, and assessment to improve student achievement
  • Determine supervisory techniques to set common goals, manage expectations, build trust, and foster collaboration among teachers to maximize performance
  • Identify assessment methods for key components of curriculum administration
• Curriculum Assessment and Evaluation

PROFESSIONAL LEARNING COMMUNITIES

A Professional Learning Community (PLC) creates a welcoming school atmosphere where all key stakeholders feel equally vested in student success. As a principal, your responsibility in a PLC is to recognize everyone as a leader and invite feedback and innovative ideas that will strengthen the school community.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Determine the role of distributed leadership in a professional learning community
  • Determine steps for implementing a professional learning community
  • Analyze how stakeholders impact change initiatives in a professional learning community
  • Explain the principal's role in a professional learning community
  • Identify the key components of an effective professional learning community
  • Identify professional learning community goals
• Professional Learning Communities

ADMINISTRATION OF SPECIAL SERVICES

• Administration of Special Services

ACTION RESEARCH

Data plays a key role in education transformations. To begin using data for decision making, principals must help their schools access the most effective database systems and practice developing strategies based on evidence to boost student achievement.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Recommend an evidence-based plan of action for a given instructional need
  • Recommend an action research strategy for a given situation
  • Describe how database management systems impact evidence-based strategic planning and school improvement
  • Identify database management systems available to schools for collecting, maintaining, and analyzing data
  • Explain the role of action research in addressing instructional needs
  • Describe the role of action research in school administration
• Action Research

SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY RELATIONS

• School and Community Relations

ADVOCACY: THE POLITICS OF PRINCIPALSHIP

As a principal, you will advocate student success both in the school and the community. This requires making a visible presence in the community, listening to stakeholder opinions and concerns, and making decisions with the support of others that will benefit student learning.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Recommend negotiation strategies for principals
  • Determine the appropriate leadership approach to facilitate a given situation
  • Outline ethical and legal considerations to address in principal advocacy
  • Compare internal and external advocacy in the duties of a principal
  • Compare transactional and transformational leadership
  • Identify key characteristics needed to perform as an effective advocate
  • Explain the role of the principal as an advocate for school stakeholders
• Advocacy: The Politics of Principalship

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Student success depends on having positive role models and effective teachers. As a principal, you will be responsible for upholding integrity and establishing a team of instructors who address student needs.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Outline legal and ethical considerations in implementing human resource policies and procedures
  • Describe how to implement professional development to increase school personnel competency
  • Determine professional development goals for school personnel
  • Explain how a principal maintains human resource records
  • Determine strategies for optimal placement of teachers and staff
  • Determine tenure and dismissal procedures
  • Outline the key steps the principal performs in selecting and inducting new teachers and staff
• Human Resource Management

SCHOOL FACILITIES AND FISCAL MANAGEMENT

Principals need to ensure that teachers, school environments, and finances all enhance student success. This requires assessing the school’s classrooms and budget and helping stakeholders make effective decisions for students using their available resources.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe the role of the principal in managing school funding and budgeting
  • Outline the legal and ethical responsibilities pertinent to processes for school budgeting, planning, and resource allocation
  • Describe the fiscal allocation of funding at the three levels of government
  • Describe the role of the principal in managing school plant and related facilities
  • Outline maintenance reporting procedures for the school plant and related facilities
  • Describe the role of school plant operations in supporting teaching and learning
• School Facilities and Fiscal Management

ETHICAL AND LEGAL ISSUES

Principals serve as leaders in creating an effective school environment. A school environment encapsulates the school’s physical space, along with the behaviors and actions of its stakeholders. Principals assist teachers in developing emergency action plans so that school personnel and students will be prepared for unexpected events and students can learn in all school settings in a safe, healthy manner. They also ensure that teachers accommodate special needs students in the classroom and work to eliminate discrimination against both employees and students.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Identify laws pertinent to discrimination in a school setting
  • Outline procedures to address discriminatory behaviors
  • Outline procedures to protect personnel from discrimination
  • Identify behaviors that constitute discrimination
  • Identify laws pertinent to individuals with special needs in the school setting
  • Determine plans for media interactions in crisis situations
  • Identify the responsibilities of a safe school committee
  • Outline key elements for crisis management in an emergency situation in a school setting
  • Describe the principal's role in establishing a safe and orderly school environment
  • Describe the key components of a safe and orderly school environment
• Ethical and Legal Issues

School Finance

THE CHALLENGE: THE FUTURE OF FUNDING OF PUBLIC EDUCATION

Educational strategies and curricula have changed dramatically. Course selections can include robotics, ESL, Chinese, and software development. Smartboards and iPads are becoming classroom staples. Modern educational possibilities are fascinating, but the demands of modern education overwhelm school systems. School boards and administrators scramble to give students the tools they need for success in an ever-changing, global economy. These decisions are expensive. In a fragile economy, the source of funding and the manner in which it is spent is critical. The means to fund the goal of a well-educated, productive, competitive workforce that supports strong societal values remains elusive.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Explain why education administrators need to be prepared for change and adaptation in addressing the funding of public education
  • Describe ways in which advances in technology affect public education funding
  • Compare how education levels in other countries affect issues in school finance
  • Describe how current and future demographic changes in the United States will affect the funding of public education
  • Identify the social issues involved in funding public education
  • Identify societal factors that financially impact the funding of public education
  • Describe economic theories addressing public education
  • Explain the relationship between Human Capital Theory and financing public education
  • Explain the societal benefits of education
  • Describe individual benefits of education
• The Challenge: The Future of Funding of Public Education

FINANCING EDUCATION: EQUITY AND ADEQUACY

Every child deserves a quality education, but not all excel in the same program. This issue of providing educational experiences that meets the needs of all children challenges educators. Revenue distribution for education is unreliable. State funding, supplemented by local resources, is in flux. Recent concerns about providing a quality education for all children have led to mandated programs. The federal government has funded some of these programs. In other cases, school systems have to implement programs but cannot be certain of the funds to do so.

The challenge of equitable education has led to court intervention. One of the most significant cases is that of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, a landmark case that desegregated schools. Other cases decided at the state levels have created issues that remain unresolved.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe how the outcomes of seminal court cases related to education adequacy affect current policy
  • Identify court cases that address issues in funding adequacy
  • Explain how adequacy is addressed in state public education funding systems
  • Compare adequacy to equity in public education
  • Identify components that impact funding adequacy
  • Explain how adequacy is determined in public education
  • Describe the issues of funding equity addressed in seminal court cases and how the case outcomes affect current policy
  • Identify court cases that addressed issues in Funding Equity
  • Explain why certain issues in education finance can lead to litigation
  • Explain how equity is addressed in state public education funding systems
  • Compare and contrast the concepts of Horizontal and Vertical Equity in public education
  • Explain the role and purpose of equity in revenue distribution
  • Compare equality to equity in terms of public education
• Financing Education: Equity and Adequacy

MODELS FOR FUNDING OF PUBLIC EDUCATION

From the days of the earliest settlers to today, local governments held the responsibility of funding education. As schools stretched their resources to support the educational evolution, additional funding sources emerged.

Litigation and pressure brought by at-risk populations turned education into a political issue. In response, federal legislation provided limited funding to meet specific needs based on clear criteria. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislations have had a significant impact on school funding decisions. More recently, federal programs, such as the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA), EduJobs, and Race to the Top, help schools address shortfalls and invest in economic recovery. School districts that qualify for these entitlement grants are monitored to ensure proper distribution of funds.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Compare the criteria for up to three federal entitlement grants: IDEA, NCLB, Race to the Top program, American Reinvestment & Recovery Act, Education Jobs (Edujobs) program
  • Compare and contrast the basic purposes and restrictions of the various federal programs
  • Identify the types of federal funding for public education
  • Explain the role of federal funding in public education
  • Explain the tenets of funding for public education in the United States
  • Describe the development of public education in the United States
• Models for Funding of Public Education

MODELS FOR STATE FUNDING OF PUBLIC EDUCATION

States collect a variety of taxes to pay for education. The most common type, a sales tax, depends on a strong economy. When unemployment is high, families decrease their discretionary spending, and sales tax receipts decrease. Many states impose an income tax in addition to that of the federal government. Corporate taxes, use taxes, fuel taxes, sumptuary or “sin” taxes, gross receipt taxes, and severance taxes are all sources of educational revenue.

States differ widely in their approach to funding schools. Ellwood Cubberly, George Strayer, and Robert Haig promoted methodology to help states provide quality programs. The Haig-Strayer plan has been adopted by many states.

Funding public schools with sufficient revenue to meet state education standards is becoming a national conversation. National assessment tools will have states rethinking their approach to education.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Explain how funding for Flat Grants, Equalizing Grants, and Foundation programs are distributed
  • Compare the purpose of Flat Grants, Equalizing Grants, and Foundation programs in funding education on a state level
  • Appraise Hawaii's model of Full School Funding
  • Explain how the states get the money to the districts
  • Explain how state funding is distributed
  • Explain the difference between progressive and regressive taxes
  • Compare different types of state taxes
  • List and describe the sources of state funding for public education
  • Describe the role and parameters of the state in funding public education
• Models for State Funding of Public Education

LOCAL SOURCES OF REVENUE

School funding has historically been tied to property taxes. Over time, states have developed other revenue sources to supplement the cost of education for all students. Property tax rates result from a state-approved funding formula that assesses the property’s value and the rate at which the property is taxed. In determining the wealth of a district, property values are divided by the number of students. States equalize this wealth standard by providing additional funds as necessary.

The funding that any district will need above and beyond the property tax levy is determined by calculating the per pupil cost of education. These numbers have to be weighted to account for differences in students’ learning styles and needs. Student enrollment numbers as assigned to regular or special education provide the basis for this calculation. Each state establishes its approach to per pupil funding.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Compare benefits and limitations of methods for determining allocation
  • Describe how Base Student Allocation is used in determining value of a student
  • Identify the role of categorical allocation
  • Apply a given set of program weights to a student enrollment to determine the weighted value
  • Describe the role of program weights in identifying and addressing educational need
  • Determine the property wealth per student in a given school district
  • Compare the benefits and limitations of using sales tax and income taxes to fund public education
  • Compare the benefits and limitations of using property taxes to fund public education
  • Describe the different ways in which property taxes are used to fund public education
  • Explain the role of tax yield in funding public education
  • Apply a given Millage rate to determine the tax yield for property
  • Explain how property values are assessed
  • Organize Real Property by classifications
  • Identify and compare different types of property that can be taxed for public school funding
  • Describe ways in which district wealth is measured
  • Describe the sources of local funding for public education
  • Identify stakeholders and participants in decision-making in public funding
  • Describe the local role in funding public education
• Low Sources of Revenue

FINANCING THE COST OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL CHOICE

Public schools are obligated to educate all students within the district, including those with special needs. In reality, federal funding provides 15 to 20 percent of funding. IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) replaced EHA and identified disability categories. Students diagnosed with special needs may require minimal or extensive accommodations at the local school or perhaps placement in another school setting.

School choice programs allow families to choose particular schools for their children. This movement arose from the call for greater accountability in education. Charter schools, magnet schools, and performance schools offer basic programs while providing courses in a particular field of study. These schools generally have a smaller student-teacher ratio and schools have an independent charter apart from the local district. However, they must meet all state guidelines and are monitored the same as district schools are. Proponents are excited about the advantages of these schools, but they do present additional challenges for the home district.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Explain why education administrators need to be prepared for change and adaptation in addressing the funding of public education
  • Describe ways in which advances in technology affect public education funding
  • Compare how education levels in other countries affect issues in school finance
  • Describe how current and future demographic changes in the United States will affect the funding of public education
  • Identify the social issues involved in funding public education
  • Identify societal factors that financially impact the funding of public education
  • Describe economic theories addressing public education
  • Explain the relationship between Human Capital Theory and financing public education
  • Explain the societal benefits of education
  • Describe individual benefits of education
• Financing the Cost of Special Education and School Choice

ADMINISTERING SCHOOL DISTRICT BUDGETS

The National Advisory Council on State and Local Budgeting has developed guiding principles for developing a school budget. These guidelines inform administrators and give direction to their efforts. Administrators must identify goals and objectives, consider available resources, and develop program plans.

There are varying approaches to preparing a budget. The types of budgets include line-item, zero-based, site-based, and incremental. Financial administrators also use PPBS, an integrative system of planning, programming, budgeting, and evaluation. Expenditures fall into one of two classifications: function or object. To avoid being overwhelmed by the enormity of the process, schools tend to do planning and evaluating all year long. Administering school district budgets is much more complicated than planning a simple freshman budget.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Explain the purpose of the function classification in school budgets
  • Identify the types of costs that would be classified into objects
  • Explain the purpose of the object classification in school budgets
  • Identify the types of costs that would be classified into function
  • Explain the purpose of cost classification in budgeting
  • Identify the five different approaches to budgeting district funds
  • For a given school district budget, classify specific expenses and revenues into the appropriate fund (budget)
  • Identify the types of expenses associated with each fund (budget)
  • Identify revenue sources for the various funds (budgets) used in public education
  • Compare the primary purposes of the different budgets
  • Identify the activities, services, and programs associated with each type of budget
  • Identify the different types of funds or budgets used in public education
  • Identify the key activities involved in creating a school district budget
  • Identify the people involved in creating a school district budget
  • Identify the stakeholders in a school district budget
  • Describe the role of a budget calendar in school budgeting
  • Identify the key components of the budget
  • Identify the goal of budgeting in education finance
  • Explain the purpose of budgeting
• Administering School District Budgets

HUMAN RESOURCES IN SCHOOL FINANCE: EMPLOYEE COMPENSATION

Teacher salaries and benefit packages account for more than 80% of a school’s budget. As you know, a budget depends primarily on tax revenues. In the current system, teachers and other school personnel get paid regardless of the quality of their work. Districts across the nation are pressured to apply performance criteria to salary increases.

School personnel are categorized as either instructional or operational employees. Pay scale calculations depend on degrees, certifications, and experience. These personnel are paid a salary regardless of the hours worked. Other staff members earn hourly wages and qualify for overtime compensation. Collective bargaining groups for teachers and nonprofessional staff negotiate fair salary compensation and benefit packages. Their relationship with the administration, which may have its own bargaining unit, is crucial to the budget.

In addition to other costs, the budget for human resources must also take into consideration leaves of absence, insurance costs, workers’ compensation, and retirement funds.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • In a given school budget, identify variable benefits
  • Compare variable benefits to fixed benefits
  • List the different types of employee benefits a budget may need to consider
  • Explain the purpose of employee benefits
  • Compare salary scales to performance/merit pay
  • Explain the purpose of salary scales
  • Compare the costs and advantages of contracted labor to hiring personnel
  • Compare a salaried employee to a wage employee
  • List the types of employee compensation included in a school budget
  • Identify the funding used to cover the cost of school personnel
  • Identify the types of personnel that need to be included in a school budget
  • Identify the costs that determine the cost of school personnel
• Human Resources in School Finance: Employee Compensation

FINANCING OF SCHOOL FACILITIES

Capital projects compose the second-greatest expenditure for a school district. Capital expenditures involve large amounts of money, but school administrators generally have little interaction with these funds. New building projects and the renovation and maintenance of older buildings fall to the state, which assumes ownership of such properties.

As the facility costs rise, fewer funds are available for school operations. However, some states have revenue options beyond property taxes. Some states have a dedicated lottery from which a portion of the net proceeds goes to fund education. New residential housing developments may be charged a school impact fee in anticipation of the impact of an influx of new families to a school district. A gross receipts tax (GRT) may be imposed on the income of businesses. In general, this is assessed at a very low rate.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Compare how other funding sources are collected to fund building school facilities
  • Identify other sources used to fund building school facilities (bonds, impact fees, discretionary property taxes)
  • Identify the local and state sources of funding used to cover the cost of building school facilities
  • Identify the local and state sources of funding used to cover the cost of school facilities
  • Identify the costs of facilities that need to be included in a school budget
  • Identify the types of facilities that need to be included in a school budget
• Financing of School Facilities

HANDLING OF CASH RECEIPTS/PURCHASES

Schools need supplies and services to operate on a daily basis, and many of these items are consumables. The process for purchasing these items has to be carefully monitored. Generally, schools use the purchase order process, which provides for oversight and authorization. When a school needs to make a large purchase or fund outlay, it advertises a request for proposal. This so-called bidding process helps schools obtain the best vendors and prices.

Recently, the credit card method of purchasing has come to schools. The P-card (purchasing card) is similar to a Visa or Master Card and can be used for online purchases. However, there are some cautions with its use that are similar to the cautions for credit card use.

Cash receipts and disbursements are common in a school setting. Organizations, teams, fund-raisers, and ticket sales generate cash. A principal must assign someone to handle these specific accounts. Mismanagement can have serious consequences. States and districts have procedures in place for how daily operating expenses are handled and tracked. The Financial and Program Cost Reporting for Florida Schools Manual, also known as Redbook, is a benchmark reference for these issues in many states.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Explain how P-card distribution and usage is monitored
  • Identify the types of purchases for which a P-card can be used
  • Identify the source of P-card funds
  • Explain the purpose of a P-card
  • Explain the rules and regulations used by schools for addressing the handling of cash receipts
  • Describe the procedures used to document and manage cash receipts at the school level
  • Outline commonly used guidelines and procedures used by schools for handling cash receipts
  • Describe the purpose of cash receipts for school level purchases
  • Explain procedures and tools schools use to monitor purchases
  • Identify acceptable standards for purchasing goods and services for public schools
  • Outline procedures for purchasing goods and services
  • Outline procedures for purchasing supplies and equipment for public schools
  • Identify the personnel involved in purchasing supplies, goods, and services purchased for public schools
  • Identify supplies, goods, and services typically purchased for public schools
• Handling of Cash Receipts/Purchases

ACCOUNTING AND AUDITING

Districts must follow solid procedures when accounting for education funds to ensure the public that tax dollars are well managed. The Government Accounting Standards Board (GASB)—an independent, nongovernment agency—has developed accepted accounting standards for that purpose. Informed by the GASB and by following Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) guidelines, school administrators can ensure accountability for their budgets.

Most schools must furnish an annual financial report to the state department of education. Careful planning and preparation of the budget is paramount. Administrators and staff who participate in the process must be well trained and monitor accounts and programs consistently. Ultimately, the principal is responsible for the school’s receipts and expenditures.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe how schools can best avoid detrimental outcomes from an audit
  • Describe the consequences of audit discrepancies
  • List the types of actions that may be required of personnel during and after an audit
  • Identify the information and documentation that is required for a school audit
  • Outline the procedures involved in a school audit
  • Identify who is responsible for conducting a school audit
  • Compare the types of audits that can take place
  • List the types of audits on school budgets
  • Explain the purpose of an audit of a school budget
  • Explain the purpose of a Comprehensive Annual Financial Report
  • Explain the role of Government Accounting Standards in school finance
  • Indicate when different approaches for accounting are used
  • Compare and contrast the three different approaches to accounting used by school systems in managing funding
  • Identify the three different approaches for accounting of school funding
• Accounting and Auditing

BUSINESS MANAGEMENT

Schools need supplies and equipment to operate quality programs. Supplies are consumable items used daily and purchased throughout the school year. Equipment is the furniture and fixtures that last over a period of time. Equipment is inventoried and considered a fixed asset of the district. Large districts may have a central warehouse to store materials. They may take advantage of volume pricing discounts from distributors. Smaller schools rarely have extra space for storage. When a district plans a major purchase or costly project, a bidding process identifies interested vendors or contractors. Once a bid has been approved, a vendor must be used. The administrative code of the district will outline specific procedures for vendors.

Risk management protects businesses from loss or liability. Protecting assets and insuring against injury claims cannot be overlooked or diminished. Some districts self-insure against loss, whereas most purchase commercial insurance.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe the rules/regulations for capitalizing equipment
  • Follow the steps and make considerations for managing risk
  • Explain the purpose of risk management
  • Describe how schools can capitalize on their supplies and equipment
  • Explain the purpose of capitalizing
  • Outline the procedures for awarding a bid
  • Outline the procedures for issuing a bid
  • Identify reasons for which a bid would be issued
  • Describe the purpose of a bid
  • Identify who is responsible for managing and maintaining school supplies and equipment
  • Identify who is responsible for managing the purchase of supplies and equipment
  • Identify supplies and equipment typically purchased by a school
  • Identify the eight key business operations for running a school system
  • Explain how various business operations for running a school system are funded
  • Describe the purpose of the various business operations for running a school system
  • Provide the criteria for a school business operation
• Business Management

Supervision in Education

LEADERSHIP: STANDARDS AND THEORIES

School leadership is the multifaceted expression of standards, principles, and theories. Contributions from the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLCC), the Educational Leadership Constituent Council (ELCC), and the Southern Regional Education Board (SREB) have provided standards and Critical Success Factors for our understanding of school leadership as a dynamic and changing set of approaches. Collegial supervision is one dimension of school leadership.

Collegial supervision is informed by five major leadership theories—servant, distributed, transformational, moral, and instructional. Recognize that theories and practices may change over time, but the exploration of today’s school settings further strengthens our understanding of school leadership.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Explain the purpose of standards for school leadership
  • Distinguish between the six standards of the ELCC and ISLLC, the 13 SREB Critical Success Factors and the four theories of leadership
  • Compare and contrast Servant, Distributed, Transformational and Moral Leadership theories of leadership with each other
  • Determine which theories of leadership apply to a given situation
  • Create a personal leadership platform based in specific leadership theories, the standards and the 13 Critical Success Factors
• Leadership: Standards and Theories

CREATING EFFECTIVE SCHOOLS

• Creating Effective Schools

EFFECTIVE TEACHING

• Effective Teaching

ADULT LEARNING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Comprehending the characteristics of adult learning and the implications for supervisory leadership is important. Adults hold a reservoir of knowledge and experiences that they use as a resource for learning. By examining professional development, such as defining what it is and outlining the qualities that make it effective, you will learn to support a lifelong learning and professional development plan with your teachers. Think about how you learn as an adult. Consider how professional development is designed, implemented, and evaluated in your school and in your district.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Distinguish ways in which adults learn
  • Explain the reasons for differences in adult learning needs
  • Describe key elements of adult learning theory
  • Explain the purpose and goals of professional development
  • Describe the purpose and elements of a Professional Development plan
  • Describe the barriers to and motivators for effective Professional Development
  • Identify factors for the success and effectiveness of a Professional Development plan
  • Apply the appropriate tenets of adult learning to meet a SMART goal from your School Improvement Plan
  • Create a professional development plan that draws both from elements of adult learning and known factors for success and effectiveness
• Adult Learning and Professional Development

PROFESSIONAL LEARNING COMMUNITIES

In schools today, a buzzword often heard is PLCs, or professional learning communities. As an aspiring school leader, you must be able to define PLCs, describe their purpose, and identify the elements of effective PLCs.

All too often, teachers are presented with state standards or a district curriculum guide, but this doesn’t guarantee that they receive a common curriculum. The difference between the intended curriculum and the implemented curriculum greatly varies based on what the teacher actually teaches, impacting what the students actually learn.

In addition, school culture, climate, and communication are important factors in the development of a PLC. You will need to be able to look at how to implement a successful and productive PLC based on these factors.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe the purpose of a professional learning community and its role in education supervision
  • Explain the elements that comprise a professional learning community
  • Identify factors that help to create a successful professional learning community
  • Explain the role of culture, climate, and communication in a professional learning community
  • Describe ways in which to foster a positive culture, climate, and communication in a professional learning community
  • Determine when culture, climate, and communication may require mediation
  • Apply appropriate strategies for mediating issues pertaining to culture, climate, and communication
• Professional Learning Communities

SUPERVISORY PLATFORMS

• Supervisory Platforms

DEVELOPMENTAL SUPERVISION: DIRECTIVE CONTROL AND DIRECTIVE INFORMATIONAL

Is it wise for a supervisor to respond to every teacher in the same way? Developmental supervision theories find that applying a variety of approaches is more effective because each teacher is an individual. Therefore, responding to each teacher in the same way is not wise. Some teachers are new to the profession or to the school; some are tenured, and some are not; and others may be veterans. A one-size-fits-all approach to supervision is disrespectful to teachers. Developmental supervision suggests that school leaders base their supervisory approach on the teacher’s level of development, expertise, and commitment to the nature of the situation.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe the role of an education leader in the professional development and growth of teachers
  • Determine teaching styles and opportunities
  • Differentiate between Directive Control and Directive Informational approaches to Developmental Supervision
  • Outline the processes involved in developing teachers
  • Determine a teacher's level of growth as a novice, experienced, and veteran, and related developmental needs
  • Determine strategies for communicating and supporting a teacher's growth, providing motivation and surmounting barriers
  • Respond to specific teaching styles and opportunities for growth with the appropriate developmental strategy
• Development Supervision: Directive Control and Directive Informational

DEVELOPMENTAL SUPERVISION: COLLABORATIVE AND NONDIRECTIVE

• Developmental Supervision: Collaborative and Nondirective

ASSESSING, PLANNING, OBSERVING, EVALUATING SKILLS

As a leader, you should dedicate time to reflection. Although you may be busy, you will find reflecting—followed by evaluation, planning, and implementation of new approaches—will lead to greater efficiency that will impact both teachers and students positively.

Effective leaders take time to assess where they have been, where they are currently, and where they are headed. Assessing a leader’s time and plan for the future is an important tool you will need as a future supervisor. Strategic planning is one example of how a leader with a committee of teachers, parents, students, and central office staff might plan for the future. In addition, many options are available for quantitative and qualitative observations that a school leader might undertake to gather key data on the quality of teaching and learning. This is crucial to you as an aspiring leader because you must be able to clearly distinguish between formative and summative evaluations, which are often based on key data from observations.

Based on the data generated from assessing, planning, observing, and evaluating, school leaders and professional development committees can focus on school improvement by designing a three-to five-year strategic plan guiding the school and the district toward fulfilling their mission and vision.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Distinguish between the roles and purposes of assessing the use of time and strategic planning
  • Distinguish between Quantitative and Qualitative observations
  • Distinguish between formative and summative evaluation
  • Facilitate the process of strategic planning
  • Apply the appropriate assessing, planning, observing, and evaluating methodologies to determine teaching effectiveness in a classroom setting
• Assessing, Planning, Observing, Evaluating Skills

CLINICAL SUPERVISION AND ENHANCING PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE: A FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING

Teachers who receive feedback and are involved in staff activities report they are more satisfied with teaching. In most school settings, the school leader is responsible for providing assistance to teachers in improving instruction in several ways. Many supervisors use specific models—clinical supervision and Enhancing Professional Practice: A Framework for Teaching. You should familiarize yourself with these models in order to achieve your school’s vision while improving teacher effectiveness.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe the five steps and goals of Clinical Supervision
  • Indicate when Clinical Supervision is warranted
  • Explain the four domains and the four teacher competencies of Enhancing Professional Practice: A Framework for Teaching
  • Provide rationale for implementing Clinical supervision or Enhancing Professional Practice: A Framework for Teaching
  • Describe strategies for implementing Clinical Supervision for Enhancing Professional Practice: A Framework for Teaching
• Clinical Supervision and Enhancing Professional Practice: A Framework for Teaching

DIFFERENTIATED SUPERVISION

As a supervisor, creating a positive and supportive work environment for your teachers and staff is important. Differentiated supervision provides teachers with options about the type of supervision and evaluation they receive. It recognizes that individual teachers have different needs in addressing professional growth and development. A one-size-fits-all approach to professional development, supervision, or evaluation does not meet the needs of all teachers. Learning about and understanding the varied forms of differentiated supervision will serve you well in retaining your teachers.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Explain the purpose and goals of Differentiated Supervision
  • Compare the options for Differentiated Supervision
  • Indicate when a given option for Differentiated Supervision would be warranted
  • Describe strategies and processes to support implementing options in Differentiated Supervision
  • Describe the purpose and elements of an Induction and Mentoring program
  • Create an Induction and Mentoring program for new teachers
• Differentiated Supervision

SPECIAL ISSUES IN SUPERVISION AND EVALUATION

As a school leader, you are charged with the responsibility of hiring and evaluating your teaching staff. Hiring a new teacher follows a specific set of protocols, and awarding tenure to veteran teachers follows yet another set of protocols. Teacher dismissal is a third issue you will face, and you must be knowledgeable about due process procedures because they influence the development and implementation of remediation plans for teachers who do not meet the expectations of the school district. You should begin thinking about these more challenging aspects of your leadership role because they will impact your school’s vision, mission, and goals.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Provide an appropriate list of questions and scenarios to ask of a potential teacher for your school
  • Create a list of desired qualities in a potential teacher that would support the goals and needs of your school
  • Outline the policies for the awarding of tenure for a given district or state
  • Outline the policies for the dismissal of a teacher for a given district or state
  • Outline the district and state policies and laws regarding due process and a remediation plan
  • Create a remediation plan to address the needs of a problem teacher
• Special Issues in Supervision and Evaluation

Organizational Behavior for Education

INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

To understand schools and how they currently operate, one must understand their fundamental structures, both formal and informal. First you must understand the purposes of schools within a society. Know who they benefit and influence and the types of powers they wield. You should also know schools follow the tradition of a bureaucratic structure, whether this structure is for good or ill. Within this structure lies authority earned by charisma, traditional, or rational-legal means. When you understand the basic pieces of fundamental constructs, you can put together a foundation in which to explain schools and their operations.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Outline the structures of educational organizations
  • Analyze bureaucracy in formal school systems
  • Analyze the role of informal organizational structure in the school system
• Introduction to Organizational Behavior

UNDERSTANDING BEHAVIOR OF SELF AND OTHERS

Classical organizational theories of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century didn’t care about making workers happy. Instead they focused on how to increase productivity by heavily managing working methods and paying workers based on productivity. Behaviorist theory later came along to explore how social and psychological factors affect workers’ productivity. This theory also explained how management can work with, rather than over, workers to get the best out of them. System theory, proposed in the 1940s, began to look at organizations as systems. It viewed these systems as built from relationship to the environment and people within the organization. Any company, organization, or school sees the best productivity when it considers how and why workers work.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Analyze the impact of classical organizational theory on educational leadership
  • Analyze the impact of the behaviorist period on educational leadership
  • Analyze the impact of systems theory on educational leadership
• Understanding Behavior of Self and Others

SYSTEMS

Since each person learns in different ways, we likely will never find a standardized way of teaching that produces the best results for all students. Furthermore, forcing teachers to use standardized teaching methods may inhibit them, especially depending on their personality and personal goals.

Therefore, all variations of social system theory seek to understand, organize, and lead schools by understanding them as interactions of people. While organizations are bigger than just people, they do not exist without people, creating a holon, or an entity both a part and a whole at the same time. People—the teachers, students, and leaders of schools—are more than just inputs and outputs in a computer system. According to social systems theory, we must understand meeting people’s desires alongside of and in balance with organizational needs creates a more efficient organization.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe social systems theory
  • Explain the fundamental constructs of social systems theory
  • Illustrate how social systems theory impacts leadership style
• Systems

CONTINGENCY THEORIES

Rational model systems are a popular method for corporate efficiency and success. Many have pushed for schools to adopt such methods. However, some responses to this push protest schools are not rational systems and, therefore, can’t employ rational planning effectively. Students are not products with easily, definitely, or universally solved problems. Furthermore, other theorists feel no single best leadership strategy exists, whether rational model or human-focused. Rather, they believe we should consider leadership conditionally and contextually.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Explain the rational planning model
  • Distinguish between loosely and tightly coupled schools
  • Describe situational leadership
• Contingency Theories

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Despite roles or ranking, consider the leaders you thought up. Whether Caesar or Gandhi, most leaders share some similar traits. You might see these traits in the leader’s personality, behaviors, interactions with followers, or results. You can also examine how you understand leaders from other criteria. Early, traditional theories of leadership favored judging and understanding leaders as a product of their inborn personality traits or their leadership behaviors. As leadership theories progressed, they examined in-depth how leaders lead, how this differs from simply managing, and why leadership styles should be flexible to the situation. Understanding the “hows” of leadership and what leadership styles match with followers gives you the knowledge to be a leader and judge other leaders’ effectiveness.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Explain how leadership in education has evolved throughout history
  • Distinguish between leadership and management
  • Explain the traditional theories of leadership in education
• Educational Leadership

BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES

Traditional theories follow the idea that leadership qualities are inborn. The story arcs of mythological heroes attest to the long standing prevalence of this belief that maintains popularity today. The only flexibility in traditional theory comes from the mix of specific leadership traits needed to succeed. A step past this rejects the idea of inherent traits, describing leadership as enacting certain behaviors in reference to tasks, relations, and changes. Here the argument is over which balance of these behaviors is universally best or if the balance solely depends on circumstances. The most flexible theories focus on inspiring and motivating people in an internal way, like the passionate teacher does. Flexible theories fit changing and varied organizations better than the strict formula more traditional theories suggest.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Analyze trait theories of leadership
  • Describe the behaviors of leaders in an educational organization
  • Explain transformational leadership
• Behavioral Approaches

COMMUNICATION

Communication is a complex process involving encoding, decoding, and channels, all of which we can explore in the five elements of communication. Knowing where communication channels fail and what techniques make them succeed can help you be a more effective and clear communicator. This knowledge can also help you better understand others’ attempts at communication.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Explain the basic elements of communication, including communicating in conflict
  • Describe the role of technologies in communication within schools
  • Evaluate the role of educational leaders in communication
• Communication

MOTIVATION

Many big questions about motivation exist, so we fail to easily define or understand motivation. Psychologists disagree over where it comes from and how it can be inspired in an individual. How much is inborn, how much is personal values, and how much is determined by circumstances? Motivation doesn’t even cause a set type of behavior, making motivation even harder to understand and study. The bigger fission in thought stems from whether motivation is intrinsically motivated or extrinsically motivated. Techniques for leaders to inspire motivation vary depending on such beliefs. The only aspect most can agree upon is the individual nature of motivation.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Examine theories related to conflict
  • Describe the conflict process
  • Discuss how effective negotiating can occur
  • Identify challenges of negotiating
• Motivation

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

School principals face a lot of challenges. They have to integrate into their school the curriculum standards and teacher evaluations handed down by the state. Even though the state requires the principal to ensure their teachers meet set standards, they also want them to improve outside of such regulations. With little control over large, mandated changes, the principal still wants to find personalized ways to improve the school and student grades. The demographics of the high school are also changing, with an increased number of minority students. The principal must determine how to integrate all students into the school in such a way that promotes success.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe the importance of schools as learning organizations
  • Distinguish between culture and climate in schools.
  • Explain the need for promoting equity and diversity in schools
• Organizational Culture

DECISION-MAKING

All the principals’ leadership styles have benefits and downsides. Traditional, rational decision-making is not subject to groupthink, allowing one to make subjective, personal decisions that best fit specific situations. However, a principal may have trouble getting teachers to follow through on his decisions. Teachers almost always follow through with new initiatives because they help make the decisions. While the principal’s approach also has the benefit of a diverse set of solutions coming from a diverse set of teachers, the teachers are subject to interpersonal loyalties influencing the process. Alternatively, some principals stick to data, allowing them to make direct comparisons among student grades and teacher performance. While using data means an accurate measurement, this approach does not look at subjective factors involved in decision-making.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Analyze the impact of rational decision-making models on educational culture
  • Analyze the impact of participatory and group theories of decision-making in schools
  • Analyze the impact of data-driven decision-making in schools
• Decision-Making

CHANGE AND STRESS MANAGEMENT

Schools have continued to change rapidly up until today to adapt to changes in knowledge, such as the great rate of technological development. They have also needed to keep up with changes in state and national policies. Many of these changes seem far removed from the individual schools and students themselves. However, some movements seek to put a more personal focus on the ongoing changes in school: Concerns-Based Adoption and Total Quality Management.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Evaluate the impact of total quality management on an educational organization
  • Evaluate the impact of the research development and diffusion change model on an educational organization
  • Evaluate the impact of the concerns-based adoption model on an educational organization
• Change Management Theories

CHANGE AND STRESS MANAGEMENT

Schools have continued to change rapidly up until today to adapt to changes in knowledge, such as the great rate of technological development. They have also needed to keep up with changes in state and national policies. Many of these changes seem far removed from the individual schools and students themselves. However, some movements seek to put a more personal focus on the ongoing changes in school: Concerns-Based Adoption and Total Quality Management.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Evaluate the impact of total quality management on an educational organization
  • Evaluate the impact of the research development and diffusion change model on an educational organization
  • Evaluate the impact of the concerns-based adoption model on an educational organization
• Change and Stress Management

Health, Safety & Nutrition in Early Childhood Education

WELLNESS ISSUES

Nutrition directly influences brain growth, which affects a child’s physical, mental, and emotional development. To work effectively with children, you need to know the current trends and cultural influences on children’s health. You also need to understand what other factors affect brain development and learning as children mature.

In working with children, you must also know how to protect those in your care by recognizing how safe practices can reduce the risks of injury. Safe and healthful behaviors—such as enforcing the use of bicycle helmets, providing a nutritious breakfast, increasing physical activity, and providing an emotionally stable environment—are all facets of health, safety, and nutrition.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe the influences on children's health, safety, and nutritional status
  • Describe current trends affecting health, safety, and nutrition
  • Explain how health, safety, and nutrition are interrelated
  • Analyze the impact of the early years on children's life-long health and nutritional status
• Wellness Issues

STANDARDS, GUIDELINES, AND NATIONAL INITIATIVES

• Standards, Guidelines, and National Initiatives

NUTRITIONAL NEEDS OF CHILDREN

• Nutritional Needs of Children

PHYSICALLY SAFE ENVIRONMENTS

A study of U.S. childcare centers found that two-thirds have safety hazards that could cause injury or death. To keep children safe, you need to know how to quickly analyze an environment for hazards. Eliminating items that could cause choking, providing supervision around water, and creating child-friendly outside environments can prevent many of the common injuries that often occur with children. You also need to know the techniques for appropriate supervision to reduce injuries and hygienic food-handling practices to reduce foodborne illnesses. Many childhood injuries and sicknesses can be prevented with good planning and simple changes.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Identify food safety issues
  • Describe effective supervision in early childhood education settings
  • Design a safe early childhood outdoor educational environment
  • Design a safe early childhood indoor educational environment
• Physically Safe Environments

EFFECTIVE EMERGENCY RESPONSE

Each year, more than 9,000 children die from unintentional injuries. In addition, more than 225,000 children are hospitalized from unintentional injuries. Most unintentional injuries are due to accidents, so caregivers must be skilled in responding effectively in an emergency until professional medical help arrives. You should become comfortable with identifying the types of emergencies that require simple first aid versus those that require the intervention of medical professionals. Even when accidents and disasters cannot be prevented, being prepared will help you make good decisions during stressful times.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Determine the effectiveness of a disaster response plan
  • Establish policies and procedures for preventing and responding to emergencies
  • Recognize the most common types of injuries in young children
• Effective Emergency Response

HEALTHY ENVIRONMENTS

• Healthy Environments

PREVENTING AND MANAGING ILLNESS

Health policies define what to do to prevent the spread of infection and promote a healthy environment when caring for children. In managing the classroom or childcare setting, caregivers should work with parents to recognize and manage illness. Communicable diseases can spread quickly throughout a group of children who may not be aware of or skilled in preventive practices, such as hand washing. As a caregiver, you will need to both teach and reinforce practices that prevent the spread of communicable disease.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Assess healthy practices to prevent the spread of illness in early childhood settings
  • Describe the teacher's role in managing illness and common infectious diseases
  • Establish health policies for an early childhood setting, including safe medication administration
• Preventing and Managing Illness

CHILDREN'S EMOTIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY

Emotional health is directly related to early childhood development. Children’s mental health has many components, such as their perception of themselves and their self-esteem. If you choose to work with children, you will often be called upon to deal with inappropriate and aggressive behavior, so you will want to know some tried-and-true methods for responding to these situations effectively.

With the changes in educational policies and the reduced financial support for schools, teachers are more likely to have children with emotional difficulties in their classrooms. Learning to recognize the normal emotional state for a child and how to foster that state enables you to keep control within the classroom and protect the safety of other children.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Analyze ways to address children's varied mental health needs
  • Illustrate effective responses to aggressive behavior
  • Determine the teacher's effectiveness in creating a pro-social environment
  • Describe the relationship between mental health and child development
• Children's Emotional Health and Safety

CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT

• Child Abuse and Neglect

EFFECTIVE LEARNING EXPERIENCES

Teaching basic concepts requires presenting them in a way children can understand and relate to. Moving an idea or concept to a habit also requires that children have repeated practice. Making lesson plans that include interesting and fun ways to learn about health, safety, and nutrition will make your classroom the “in” place to be, and children will want to come back every day.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Develop nutrition education activities for young children
  • Develop safety awareness activities for young children
  • Develop learning experiences focused on health concepts and activities for young children
• Effective Learning Experiences

PARTNERING WITH FAMILIES

Partnering with families to meet children’s health, safety, and nutrition needs can be a challenge. The financial, cultural, physical, and emotional status of each family can differ, making it impossible to have one plan that fits everyone’s needs. In every situation, your goal is to work with families in a positive way.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe ways that early childhood educators can partner with families to provide for children's special health care needs
  • Develop strategies that facilitate collaboration with families to meet children's nutritional needs including the support of breast feeding
• Partnering with Families

PROMOTING CHILDREN'S WELLNESS

The community has a responsibility to be a source of support for parents and families in meeting the needs of children. A range of resources may be available for parents’ education, including brochures, family activities, and social services. Many of these resources provide inspiration and ideas for types of teaching tools you can use to promote wellness when working with children.

It is important to recognize the role of a family’s culture before attempting to advocate for a position. Understanding culture’s role in the family or community allows you to focus your health, safety, and nutrition programs in a way that will be accepted and understood. You must become familiar with the tools you can use to effectively promote children’s health in your community.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe the role of culture in children's health, safety, and nutrition
  • Determine the effectiveness of educational opportunities for families in the areas of health, safety, and nutrition
• Promoting Children's Wellness

Curriculum in Early Childhood Education

DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE

Early childhood educators need to understand the relationship between developmentally appropriate practice, quality care, and education for young children. You need to know the core areas of knowledge to consider when planning developmentally appropriate experiences for young children. In developmentally appropriate environments, children learn in two important ways: through child engagement and through play.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Explain the three areas of knowledge (age-related expectations, individual differences, and social and cultural contexts) that form the core of developmentally appropriate practice
  • Analyze stages of play in relation to developmentally appropriate practice
  • Explain the role of active child engagement in developmentally appropriate practice
  • Recognize the relationship between developmentally appropriate practices and quality
• Developmentally Appropriate Practice

CURRICULUM FOUNDATIONS, MODELS AND STANDARDS

What are the theories about how young children learn? Are there different models for effective curricula? How do local, state, and national standards affect what you teach? You may read controversies about standards reported in the news. Are standards helpful for children’s learning, or are they detrimental? These are just a few of the questions educators need to consider and examine as they enter the teaching profession.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Explain the benefits and concerns of using standards in early childhood education
  • Describe how federal- and state-based programs have impacted early childhood
  • Explain how early learning guidelines and state standards can be used in curriculum development
  • Describe the standards that might affect curriculum development during the early childhood years
  • Compare ECE program models
  • Compare the major early childhood theories
• Curriculum Foundations, Models and Standards

FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS

Families play a key role in the early childhood curriculum. Families are the child’s first and most important teachers. It is important for you as an educator to work closely with families as you develop and implement your curriculum.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Compare ways of involving families in curriculum development and implementation
  • Critique different communication strategies for establishing reciprocal relationships with families
  • Describe the benefits of establishing reciprocal relationships with families
• Family Partnerships

ENVIRONMENTS: PHYSICAL AND EMOTIONAL

The emotional and physical aspects of early childhood environments impact the learning environment. Having a warm, caring atmosphere and using positive guidance are necessary to establish emotionally safe surroundings where children are able to learn. Early childhood educators should be aware of effective schedules, transitions, and room arrangements, which form a critical foundation for effective curriculum.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Critique a physical environment for learning opportunities
  • Describe appropriate guidance techniques for a given situation
  • Critique a schedule for learning opportunities
  • Evaluate a child-teacher relationship for children 0 to 8 years old to determine whether it is warm and caring within a developmentally appropriate environment
• Environments: Physical and Emotional

CURRICULUM PLANNING

Curriculum planning is an integral part of a successful program. Providing children with a developmentally appropriate, comprehensive, challenging yet achievable curriculum requires careful planning. Teachers must consider when many elements when creating plans, choosing appropriate learning topics, and developing plans for learning.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Critique plans for learning experiences with young children
  • Plan appropriate learning topics for young children
  • Describe the different elements a teacher must consider when developing curriculum plans
• Curriculum Planning

CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

Teachers employ different methods to help children learn. Educators need to know many ways of implementing curriculum, including how to teach effectively using small groups, large groups, and learning centers. To have an effective program, early childhood educators often make use of outdoor learning and incorporate a variety of purposeful strategies to enhance the curriculum.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Analyze the purpose of teacher-led large group instruction
  • Analyze the purpose of outdoor learning activities
  • Compare the uses of various instructional strategies
  • Analyze the purpose of learning centers
  • Analyze the purpose of teacher-led small group instruction
• Curriculum Implementation

ASSESSMENT AND REFLECTION

Some people live in an area where schools are rated and teachers are paid based on children’s assessment results. In this age of accountability, this scenario is becoming more common. Although accountability is one reason for assessment, learning is assessed for many other reasons. Educators need to be familiar with different types of assessments, their purposes, and their uses.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe multiple uses of assessment in an early childhood classroom
  • Compare the various forms of assessment
  • Describe the need and use for assessment in the classroom
• Assessment and Reflection

MATH, SCIENCE, AND TECHNOLOGY

Math, science, and technology can be challenging to teach. Often, early childhood teachers are responsible for developing their own math, science, and technology curriculum. What should you include? Should the curriculum consist mainly of learning facts? At what age should children begin to learn about technology? As standards and technology evolve, these questions must be asked each year as you develop and implement your curriculum.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe the characteristics of a developmentally appropriate technology curriculum
  • Describe the characteristics of a developmentally appropriate science curriculum
  • Describe the characteristics of a developmentally appropriate mathematics curriculum
• Math, Science, and Technology

PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND CREATIVE ARTS

Early childhood education programs often focus on physical development, including gross motor skills, fine motor skills, and health enhancement. To have a balanced curriculum, teachers will incorporate the arts into their plans, including visual art, music and movement, and drama. When children engage in the arts, they are enhancing their physical, social, emotional, and cognitive development as well as their creativity.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe the characteristics of a developmentally appropriate drama curriculum
  • Describe the characteristics of a developmentally appropriate music and movement curriculum
  • Describe the characteristics of a developmentally appropriate visual arts curriculum
  • Describe the characteristics of a developmentally appropriate physical education curriculum
• Physical Education and Creative Arts

LANGUAGE AND LITERACY

Research reveals that there is a large discrepancy between the size of the vocabulary of children from low-income and upper-income families. Vocabulary is closely related to a child’s success in school. Educators need to assist children in the early childhood years to develop the language and literacy skills that they need to be successful. The foundation for a child’s future success as a reader and writer is established in early childhood. Literacy and language skills also affect a child’s ability to learn in all areas of the curriculum.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe how children's literature supports developmentally appropriate curriculum
  • Describe how teachers support language development in children
  • Describe the characteristics of a developmentally appropriate literacy curriculum
• Language and Literacy

SOCIAL STUDIES

Imagine overhearing a child in your classroom say to another child, “You can’t play with me because you are fat.” Teachers can take a proactive approach to teaching children to accept those that are different from them. Early childhood educators can learn ways to support children’s social and emotional development, teach appropriate social studies content, and develop an anti-bias curriculum.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe the characteristics of a developmentally appropriate multicultural and anti-bias curriculum
  • Describe the characteristics of a developmentally appropriate social studies curriculum
  • Describe learning experiences that support children's social-emotional development
• Social Studies

INTEGRATING CURRICULUM

As a teacher, you need to plan curriculum for literacy, math, science, technology, social studies, physical skills, music, art, and drama. Experts in each of these areas would say that it is important to include each of these curriculum areas each day, yet this task seems impossible. When teachers integrate curriculum, children can see the connections between subjects. It can make learning more engaging and meaningful as they learn skills within a topic they are interested in. You can integrate curriculum through lessons, learning centers, and themes.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Create an integrated theme or project that includes developmentally appropriate content from at least three different curriculum areas
  • Create a learning center that integrates developmentally appropriate content from at least three different curriculum areas
  • Create a lesson that integrates developmentally appropriate content from at least two different curriculum areas
• Integrating Curriculum

Curriculum Development

21ST CENTURY AMERICAN EDUCATION

According to the 2011 U.S. Census Bureau, African Americans comprise more than 13% of the U.S. population. The rest of the population is composed of 78% Caucasians, 16% Hispanics or Latinos, 5% Asians, and 1% Native Americans. A language other than English is spoken in about 20% of households.

Logically, students in U.S. schools come from various economic, social, racial, cultural, and academic backgrounds. Because of this diversity, preparing these students for life in the twenty-first century is challenging. Introducing strategies to support success for all learners and engage them in productive classroom experiences is critical. As an educator, you must explore various ways to build an effective, dynamic system of twenty-first-century American education in order to best support your students’ success.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe a variety of ways that diverse students engage with curricular materials to construct meaning
  • Describe elements of culturally relevant pedagogy
  • Propose a curriculum review process that considers the needs of early childhood, elementary, middle, and high school students; English language learners; and special education and general education students
  • Defend the implementation of Response to Intervention as a reform strategy
• 21st Century American Education

21ST CENTURY LEARNERS

• 21st Century Learners

EDUCATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY

The twenty-first century offers both challenges and opportunities for American schools. Educators must now answer questions such as “What are the risks and benefits to new media and digital technologies?” and “How can you effectively implement specific technologies in your lessons?”

To reshape curriculum for the twenty-first century, educators must redefine the democratic process and social expectations. In addition, they must establish effective instructional practices to develop the skills necessary for success. Finally, they must explore educational reform approaches to support equity and quality for all learners. You should examine these areas with an eye toward specific strategies to embed twenty-first-century skills in the classroom. Educators must now ask themselves what role technology should play in the classroom. How might technology detract from the learning outcomes? What benefits might it bring to the classroom and to student achievement?

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Summarize the proficiencies referred to by the phrase twenty-first-century skills
  • Explain the impact of twenty-first-century learning models
  • Describe strategies that provide opportunities for digital natives to apply twenty-first-century skills
  • Use digital tools in PK12 classrooms to solve real-world problems
• Education in the 21st Century

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES

We each possess philosophies of education, regardless of whether we acknowledge their existence. Major life philosophies include idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism. Each worldview affects how teaching and learning are interpreted. Over time, however, specific educational philosophies, such as perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, and reconstructionism, have evolved. Each philosophy supports or undermines the prevailing notion of curriculum.

As educators determine whether learning is successful through appropriate measures and standards, they must also explore their beliefs about how students learn best. It is important for you to plan well to ensure successful learning in your school.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Analyze ways that curriculum influences educational outcomes
  • Summarize curriculum trends in four different educational philosophies
  • Describe major contributions of several educational philosophers
• Educational Philosophies

EQUITY ISSUES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION

• Equity Issues in American Education

HISTORY OF AMERICAN EDUCATION

• History of American Education

LEADING CHANGE

What do U.S. schools lack? Some argue that students and teachers lack a commitment to learning. Others argue that education devalues personal experiences and creative ways of learning. Whether systems use outdated, industrialized learning formats or disregard students, reform is necessary. Even in effective learning environments, reforms must be geared toward the changing culture and society of the United States.

Instigating and sustaining meaningful school reform involves school leaders, teachers, students, parents, and community members. As one of these constituents, you should examine how effective school leaders use a variety of resources and strategies to lead successful initiatives. Understanding community involvement, social capital, twenty-first-century skills, and diverse student needs will help you support positive school reform in the Digital Age.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe the use of social capital as a prerequisite to organizational change in schools
  • Provide examples of school reform strategies over the past 60 years, including a description of the effectiveness of each
  • Describe changes in society that impact public schools
• Leading Change

POLITICS OF EDUCATION

In The Educational Imagination (1994), Elliot Eisner explored the ways we create and assess school curriculum. In one section, he analyzed the meaning of teaching. For Eisner, teaching achievement related to content instruction and the actions a teacher completed to encourage student success. Which concept do you adhere to in your teaching and learning approaches? Is one “correct” or more effective than the other?

Whatever concept you favor, one point is clear: school curricular choices have multiple influences. Social, historical, psychological, and philosophical pressures exert tremendous pressures on school leaders. State and national governments have interests related to education, so navigating the politics can be a formidable enterprise.

In the United States, the standards movement, the focus on testing, the No Child Left Behind Act, and reports such as A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform combine to create vigorous debates about the work of schools. As an educator, you must examine the various political viewpoints on improving education and determine how to implement them in the classroom.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Summarize methods used by effective teachers to align student work with rigorous standards
  • Identify research-based models used by effective school leaders that link curriculum, assessment, and instruction to improve teaching and learning
  • Describe indicators of effective PK12 literacy instruction
  • Describe indicators of effective PK12 math instruction
  • Describe indicators of effective best instructional practice based on theories of learning across domains
  • Distinguish between assessment of learning and assessment for learning
• Politics of Education

SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF AMERICAN EDUCATION

The American curriculum is an exchange in which students learn not only practical information but also the traditions and cultural expectations of their homes, communities, and future work environments. Educators must provide an environment in which students may engage in “broader cultural traditions and schooled knowledge” (Applebee, 1996). The question is: How do they engage?

Curriculum is heavily influenced by historical and social conditions. To add to the complexity, educational philosophies diverge over what and how to teach. For example, the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and the Council of Chief State School Officers have developed the national Common Core State Standards to help educators follow consistent standards and benchmarks in teaching and learning. However, not all 50 states have adopted these standards because educational leaders and other stakeholders disagree on what students should learn. As an educator, you must foster students’ allegiance to democracy while balancing cultural and social constraints. It is important to examine the impact local and national governments have on how public schools are created and managed. In doing so, you will gain an understanding of society’s impact on American education.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Determine the relationship between school and community
  • Compare the role of the teacher in American schools with the teacher's role in other countries
  • Describe changes in the purpose and role of schools in society
  • Distinguish among the roles of various stakeholders within a school (teachers, students, parents, and community)
• Social Foundations of American Education

STUDENT DIVERSITY AS A FACTOR IN AMERICAN EDUCATION

The motto of the United States, e pluribus unum, is a Latin phrase meaning “from many, one.” It reminds us that Americans are people from diverse backgrounds and beliefs. Schlesinger (1998) asserted that U.S. citizens are “tied together, in Martin Luther King’s phrase, into ‘a single garment of destiny.’” However, much like the country as a whole, educators continue to face the challenge of achieving unity while respecting diversity.

The United States evolved as a diverse nation over hundreds of years, but prejudice and inequity remain problematic, despite a foundation of “liberty and justice for all.” In the quest for quality academic opportunities, educators must examine how schools facethe challenge of educating diverse populations to incorporate workable solutions that will benefit all children.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Determine strategies used by effective principals to eliminate predictable differences in student achievement which persist in schools across the country
  • Explain how some students continue to be privileged while others struggle to succeed in American schools
  • Compare the impact of using aggregate and disaggregate student performance data to inform decision making
  • Describe how achievement gaps reflect differentials of societal power
• Student Diversity as a Factor in American Education

TEACHING AND LEARNING

The real work of curricular development focuses on how teaching and learning are accomplished in the classroom. As Eisner observed (1994), “Teaching can be done as badly as anything else…wooden, mechanical, mindless, and wholly unimaginative.” Likewise, educators and school leaders know that the practical application of effective approaches is more complicated than is portrayed in the media.

Previous reliance on textbook-based instruction has led many people to assume that the textbook is the curriculum. However, this couldn’t be further from the truth. Contemporary education is based on classroom-based research. Instructional strategies that provide a venue for successful curricular implementation are grounded in adopted standards and twenty-first-century skills.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Identify the role of curriculum as a filter in classroom instruction
  • Describe instructional improvement using research-based best instructional strategies
  • Explain the purpose of the Common Core Standards
• Teaching and Learning

WHAT IS CURRICULUM?

• What is Curriculum?

School and Community Relations

INTRODUCTION TO SCHOOL COMMUNITY RELATIONS

Good communication leads to success, especially when it comes to school community relations. A school affects members of a community, even those not enrolled in the school itself. As a key community institution, a school should share its status with community stakeholders. Doing so will lead to the development of an open and healthy school culture.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Explain how the school leaders' values and beliefs influence their development of a school community vision
  • Describe the relationship between school community relations and school culture
  • Identify the role of the leader in the development and implementation of a communications plan
  • Describe contemporary issues that have made school and community relations a critical component of education leadership
  • Explain the role of schools in a democratic society
• Introduction to School Community Relations

UNDERSTANDING THE COMMUNITY

Understanding the power dynamics of the community will help educators and administrators make their school a success once again. A good start is to identify the significant organizations and businesses influencing the community to see if favoritism or religious influence affects the funding of school receives.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • List the elements of a diverse community
  • Apply the concept of community power structure to special interests affecting school and school district decisions
  • Select instruments to collect data from a diverse community
• Understanding the Community

COMMUNICATION IN A CRISIS

Tragedy is part of life. Natural disasters such as hurricanes, snowstorms, and flash floods can pose a big threat to school safety. School shootings, bomb threats, and other violent crimes plague schools far too often, and unforeseeable accidents such as bus crashes and student deaths can place a terrible burden on the community. A school leader needs a crisis communications plan in place to help deal with these events when they arise.

A crisis communications plan’s four main components are mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. Such a plan stresses the importance of providing factual and consistent communications to the media, community, and school stakeholders. Different types of school personnel—from senior management to crisis team members—have different responsibilities in crisis situations, but every member must work together to carry out the pre-approved plan.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Explain the strategies for working with the mass media during a crisis
  • List the elements of a crisis communications response plan
  • Summarize the responsibilities of school personnel for a crisis communication plan
  • Evaluate the role of leadership in a crisis situation
  • Defend the inclusion of a crisis communications policy as part of a school and community relations program
  • Describe scenarios that require a crisis communication plan
• Communication in a Crisis

EVALUATION OF SCHOOL COMMUNITY RELATIONS PROGRAMS

Progress will not occur if nothing ever changes. School leaders must periodically evaluate their school community relations programs to ensure their effectiveness. This process includes encouraging feedback and documenting outcomes through formative and summative assessments. In some cases, school leaders choose to undertake communications audits.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Explain how research informs the accountability efforts of a school and community relations program
  • Describe strategies for communicating outcomes of a school and community relations program
  • Describe strategies for documenting outcomes of a school and community relations program
  • Explain the importance of an assessment strategy for a school and community relations program
• Evaluation of School Community Relations Programs

BUILDING PARTNERSHIPS WITH THE COMMUNITY

School leaders often develop partnerships with local community organizations. The Lions Club is one example, but others include libraries, hospitals, local businesses, and government organizations. Partnerships are best when they lead to better student learning, such as when organizations can supply a school with additional funding, learning materials, or work experience for students. The organization needs to benefit just as much as the school, though.

Establishing the partnership is the first step to forming these beneficial relationships. Then, a school leader must carefully sustain an active partnership, similar to any other type of relationship. The National Education Association (NEA) outlines strategies for maintaining healthy school/community partnerships. These strategies include defining core values, connecting students, and professional development.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Analyze a school or district's community partnerships
  • Analyze practices to sustain school community partnerships
  • Describe practices that build school community partnerships
  • Identify successful school community partnerships
  • Describe methods of developing active partnerships with parents and families
• Building Partnerships with the Community

SCHOOL FAMILY COMMUNICATIONS

Teachers and principals prioritize building positive relationships with the parents of their students. Parents need to know the academic and social status of their children at school so they can intervene if problems arise.

Teacher parent communication methods come in many forms. Telephone calls, “backpack” notes, emails, and face-to-face meetings are a few common methods. The best methods give parents the opportunity to provide feedback. Communication is especially important for children with special needs, and parents and teachers need to meet regularly to discuss the progress of students with developmental disorders.

School leaders also must make a school’s financial information available and easily-accessible online to the community because budget information can directly affect students and parents.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Distinguish necessary communication of school financial issues from required public reporting
  • Describe the school financial information that is publicly available to the community
  • Describe how a community relations plan promotes understanding of the diversity in the community
  • Develop specific communications plans for families with children with special needs
  • Describe methods for building positive relationships with families of all students
  • Analyze communication methods between schools and families
• School Family Communications

WORKING WITH THE PRESS AND MEDIA OUTLETS

As the educators and administrators, you may be responsible for announcing important news to the community. Technological advances have opened up a lot of options for external communications, so the hard part is choosing the best option for making the announcement.

Sometimes to the best option is leaving communications up to the media. If you take the time to develop a rapport with your local newspaper, you can contact a trusted reporter to share delicate news. Schools can also publish press releases to announce important information and news. These documents are short, simple, and to the point.

You can also read a press release during a press conference. Press conferences are held to discuss big issues affecting the community, such as school realignment, administration changes, or crisis events. They give the community and media a chance to ask questions.

Finally, you can go with the electronic media route, using radio, television, websites, or social media tools to communicate with the community. Media-savvy leaders need to know these options have their advantages and disadvantages, just like any form of communication.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • List advantages and disadvantages of using broadcast media in school community relations programs
  • Explain the role of the school leader in a news conference
  • Describe situations in which a news conference or press release is necessary
  • Develop an appropriate press release for a print media reporter
  • Describe the steps to working with a print media reporter
• Working with the Press and Media Outlets

LEGAL AND ETHICAL ASPECTS OF SCHOOL COMMUNITY RELATIONS PROGRAMS

School leaders need to know the legal and ethical rules governing their communications initiatives. Liability issues can arise from poor record keeping or a misuse of freedom of speech. Copyright laws can also govern what a school can print on its pamphlets, brochures, or curriculum materials. In addition, teachers and administrators should have a firm hold on the fair use policy and the Copyright Act of 1976.

Ethical issues are sometimes harder to decipher, but school leaders need to recognize ethical behavior when it comes to communication. Say a principal wants to report good news to the media and keep bad news a secret. Is this ethical? Leaders should answer questions like this according to their school district’s rules and regulations on the subject.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Describe the impact of the school leaders' beliefs and values on ethical decision making
  • Identify ethical issues involved in school community relations
  • Identify potential copyright issues involved in school community relations
  • Identify the potential liability issues within a school community relations program
• Legal an Ethical Aspects of School Community Relations Programs

PREPARING PUBLISHED AND ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

Are newsletters more effective in a print or digital format? School leaders have the sometimes difficult decision of choosing between these two media formats. Print media is appropriate for certain important documents that schools want to archive, while digital media is better for timely information, such as news. Both have pros and cons. Print media may be more expensive to create and distribute; however, digital media comes with a host of legal considerations and technical difficulties to consider. School leaders must determine the best option for their school and purpose.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Analyze the impact of modern technology on school community relations
  • Determine the appropriate electronic communication avenue for specific school issues
  • Develop a publication for a school or school district
  • List the different types and uses of publications for a school or school district
• Preparing Published and Electronic Communications

THE EXTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS PLAN

Schools are made up of individuals—students, teachers, and staff—who often do newsworthy things the community wants to hear about. Similarly, schools should share the financial and academic status of a school and upcoming programs and events. Stakeholders within the community, such as business owners and local taxpayers, have a vested interest in this type of news.

Developing and implementing an external communications plan is the first step a principal can take to keep school news flowing into the community. This comprehensive plan outlines how to publicize each type of news item. Additionally, having school administrators actively involved in the community also helps keep the community informed. When a principal belongs to the Lions Club or volunteers as a troop leader, it reflects well on the school and helps the principal form bonds with community leaders.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Explain the steps to effective communication during a crisis
  • Create an implementation checklist for external communications
  • Describe the value of special issue campaigns to a school and community relations program
  • Outline considerations for working with the media
  • Explain how different communication opportunities require different types of media and messages
  • Describe effective ways to handle criticism within various contexts
  • Identify strategies for effective external communications during times of institutional change
  • Describe the impact of external communications on the relationships among staff, teachers, administrators, and the community
  • Analyze the uses of different types of external communications
  • Explain the value of an external communications plan for an educational institution
• The External Communications Plan

THE INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS PLAN

To share pertinent information within a school, principals can use mail or the Internet. Morning announcements keep students and teachers up-to-date about school-related news, and bulletin boards can announce the latest football game or school play. These days technology is revolutionizing communication methods, pushing paper methods aside more and more.

Regardless of the mode, schools must communicate information to school shareholders. Topics can range from news about the school’s latest placement test scores to emergency notifications. Principals need to develop an internal communications plan to address ways of sharing such information and cannot understate the value of planning. Calendars, departmental meetings, and policy handbooks can give school shareholders a sense of belonging to the organization. When a school has good communication, the members of its community are happier and more productive.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • List the uses of different types of internal communications
  • Create an implementation checklist for internal communications
  • Identify strategies for effective internal communications during times of institutional change, negotiations, and strikes
  • Describe the impact of internal communications on the relationships among staff, teachers, administrators, and the community
  • Explain the value of an internal communications plan for an educational institution
• The Internal Communication Plan

COMMUNICATION POLICIES AND PLANS

Schools need communication policies in place to act effectively in the community. However, communication processes can be difficult, in part because so many options for communication exist. The advent of technology has revolutionized communication, but technology also makes it easier for messages to get lost in translation. A principal must choose the best method to present messages to the community.

Principals must also consider what sort of messages they will send out. In addition to information about new programs, the communication plan will announce a school’s academic and financial information, along with student events and emergency situations.

The administration can choose from many methods to implement such a plan. Principals can make these decisions on their own, or they can enlist the help of a planning committee made up of teachers and staff. Alternatively, they can hire a marketing expert to offer an outside perspective. Strategic planning is an important initiative to help the principal review progress and set up goals for the future.

After completing this resource, Learners will be able to:

  • Explain the roles of the stakeholders in the communication planning process
  • Describe the importance of the strategic planning process to the development of a school and community relations program
  • Analyze a school or school district communications policy
  • Determine the key components of a communications policy
  • Explain the importance of framing an inclusive communications policy
  • List effective communication strategies for school meetings
  • List the elements of an effective communications process
• Communication Policies and Plans

School Law

CHURCH/STATE RELATIONS

The relationship between religion and government remains highly controversial in the United States. Although Thomas Jefferson once wrote that there is a “wall of separation between church and state,” this phrase is not part of the U.S. Constitution. Instead, the First Amendment provides that Congress may not enact any law that respects an establishment of religion or prohibits the free exercise of religion. The First Amendment applies to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. Today, school districts are confronted with many legal issues related to church-state relations. For example, would a school district violate the establishment clause if it allowed teachers to wear burkas in school, or would it violate teachers’ rights to freely exercise their religion if school officials made the teachers wear something else?

It is important to explore and directly address controversies surrounding church-state relations because these issues impact how high the “wall,” as put forth by Thomas Jefferson, should be in public schools.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe how the Equal Access Act applies to public schools
  • Identify situations in which public schools must accommodate students' religious requests
  • For a given situation, apply the various constitutional tests to determine if there is an Establishment Clause violation
  • Explain the difference between the Free Exercise and Establishment Clauses of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution
  • Describe the purpose of the separation of church and state in U.S. law
• Church/State Relations

DISCRIMINATION IN EMPLOYMENT

• Discrimination in Employment

HARRASSMENT AND BULLYING

Numerous studies document that most students experience some form of sexual harassment or bullying while in elementary and secondary school. These studies are troubling because the research has documented the long-term psychological effects that bullying and harassment have on students.

Although harassment against any student is inappropriate, studies demonstrate that certain marginalized groups experience more frequent harassment than others. For example, harassment in schools is often targeted at students with disabilities, along with students who are gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered.

As a school official, you have a responsibility to respond appropriately and effectively to bullying and harassment. It is important to know your duty as it relates to the various federal antidiscrimination laws and to implement those laws in your school to promote a safe and effective learning environment.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Describe the legal trends of bullying against various marginalized groups (e.g. LGBT, students with disabilities)
  • Identify marginalized groups that may warrant legal protection from bullying
  • For a given situation in a public school setting, determine if school officials may discipline students for off-campus harassment committed through the use of various social media outlets
  • Explain the trends in anti-bullying legislation, including the role of state law
  • For a given situation in a public school setting, determine the role Title IX plays in protecting students from peer harassment
• Harassment and Bullying

EMPLOYEES' SPEECH RIGHTS

Imagine a social studies teacher discussing the war in Iraq with her students. A student in class asks the teacher whether she supported the war, and the teacher responds that she only supports peace, not war.

Could this teacher be disciplined for this type of speech, or is her speech protected under the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution? In a case with very similar facts, the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals held that this type of teacher speech is not protected under the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.

The court reasoned that teachers are hired to teach the curriculum and that teachers can be disciplined for giving their personal opinions in class. This is one reason why it is important to examine teacher speech inside and outside the classroom. Related to teacher speech are teachers’ right to associate and teacher dress-code policies—having an awareness of both will help you avoid any potential legal issues.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • For a given school setting, determine the school board's role in regulating teacher appearance
  • For a given situation, explain how the First Amendment applies to a teacher's right to associate
  • For a given public school setting, identify the legal rights of teachers with respect to freedom of expression under the First Amendment both inside and outside the school
• Employees' Speech Rights

INSTRUCTIONAL ISSUES

• Instructional Issues

RIGHTS OF INDIVIDUALS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

• Rights of Individuals with Special Needs

STUDENT DISCIPLINE

Student discipline can be one of the most difficult areas for educators to confront in schools. This is because you might, for example, fear being sued for breaking up a fight when a student is injured. Yet you must understand that not only do you have the authority to discipline students in class, but you also have a duty to do so. When school officials discipline students, their actions are generally found to be constitutional if the school rule or policy is rationally related to a legitimate government interest.

The law makes it clear that educators have the right and responsibility to discipline students, but sometimes legal questions arise regarding how the discipline can be accomplished. Court decisions have provided some guidelines for school officials concerning matters of suspension, expulsion, zero tolerance, and student searches. Some courts have also recognized that students can be disciplined for their off-campus behavior if their actions have a direct effect on the safety of the students or school officials at school.

As an educator or school official, it is important that you examine and understand appropriate disciplinary procedures to protect the students’ rights and provide a safe learning environment.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Outline the issues pertinent to search and seizure in public schools (e.g. locker searches, car searches, drug testing) as it relates to the Fourth Amendment
  • For a given situation, identify the legal issues involved in employing academic sanctions as a form of discipline
  • Describe the legal status of discipline and corporal punishment across the United States
  • For a given school setting, describe the legal status of zero-tolerance policies
  • For a given school setting, identify the due process procedures for expulsion and suspension
• Student Discipline

STUDENTS' EXPRESSION RIGHTS

The First Amendment applies to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. Prior to the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment, the U.S. Supreme Court held that the Bill of Rights only applied to the federal government and not to the state governments. Under the incorporation doctrine of the Bill of Rights, however, many provisions of the Bill of Rights now also apply to state governments. As a result, the First Amendment’s free speech clause can be invoked in cases involving student speech in schools.

You may often wonder how far the First Amendment extends to protect students’ free speech rights in public schools. When students try to test the limits of personal expression in schools, it can be difficult to maintain an appropriate school environment. Although students do not shed their constitutional rights to free speech at the schoolhouse gates, their speech can be curtailed under certain circumstances. In 1986, the U.S. Supreme Court captured this balance in Bethel School District v. Fraser when the Court reasoned, “The undoubted freedom to advocate unpopular and controversial views in schools and classrooms must be balanced against the society’s countervailing interest in teaching students the boundaries of socially appropriate behavior.”

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Determine how the law applies to student appearance and dress
  • Describe how the Equal Access Act applies to student speech
  • Differentiate between speech in schools and off-campus speech
  • Describe at least four major U.S. Supreme Court cases that involve student expression rights
  • Determine how the First Amendment applies to the protection of free speech
  • Describe the scope and intent of the First Amendment's free speech clause
• Students' Expression Rights

TEACHER OUT-OF-SCHOOL CONDUCT

A teacher supplements her income by working at Hooters on the weekend; she also sometimes drinks a lot of beer on her front porch. It was rumored that she got a DUI during summer vacation. Can school officials regulate employee conduct outside of the school building?

Teachers are considered role models and are held to high standards in their communities. Some teachers may wonder whether they can be disciplined for their out-of-school conduct. While teachers may argue that they should be permitted to live their lives as they choose outside the work day, school officials may want to place limits on those activities—especially when out-of-school conduct has an impact on the educator’s teaching effectiveness in the classroom.

To better prepare you for school and community expectations regarding teacher conduct, it is important to explore the legal parameters involving your right to privacy outside of school.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • In a given setting, determine how community standards may influence issues involving teachers' out-of-school conduct
  • Explain how the nexus theory has been applied in disciplining teachers for their out of school conduct
  • In a given school setting, explain how the Fourteenth Amendment's substantive due process clause applies to teacher privacy
• Teacher Out-of-School Conduct

TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT TERMINATION

State laws and regulations define school personnel’s employment rights, but state and federal constitutional provisions and civil rights laws also play an important role. Terms and conditions of employment are created at the state and local levels, including rules regarding teacher licensure or assignment of personnel duties.

Teacher termination is generally governed in part by state law and the school board’s collective bargaining contract. State laws outline the causes for teacher dismissal and the necessary due process procedures. Right-to-work states also influence the types of protections teachers have in terms of employment.

It is important to understand general terms and conditions for employment and termination and also educator rights under the Fourteenth Amendment, which includes property or liberty interests that are protected by due process laws.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • Identify legal trends in collective bargaining rights
  • Identify the federal constitutional protections that come into play in teacher termination, including due process rights
  • For a given school setting, identify the role the school board plays in teacher contracts and various personnel issues
  • For a given public school setting, identify the role the state plays in teacher licensure, the various conditions that impact employment, and the grounds for termination
• Terms and Conditions of Employment Termination

TORT LIABILITY

Tort law allows individuals who have been injured to sue the person who harmed them for monetary damages. There are two types of torts: unintentional torts and intentional torts. Under tort law, school officials might be responsible when a student is injured while under their supervision. Tort lawsuits can be filed against the school district or against individuals, such as teachers or administrators.

While student safety and a conducive, productive learning environment are the highest priorities in the classroom, it is important to examine negligence, the defenses to negligence, and intentional torts. An understanding of these areas will help you as a school leader or educator in protecting your school against unnecessary litigation while promoting a safe and healthy learning environment for your students.

This resource provides instruction for users to:

  • For a given situation in a school setting, determine procedures for responding to defamation, libel, and slander
  • For a given situation in a school setting, determine occurrences of defamation (i.e., libel, and slander)
  • Explain the difference between negligence and intentional torts
  • For a given situation in a school setting, determine how to apply the defenses to negligence
  • For a given situation in a school setting, explain how elements of negligence may apply
• Tort Liability

FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL LAWS AFFECTING PUBLIC SCHOOLS

• Federal, State, and Local Laws Affecting Public Schools

ADDITIONAL COURSE PASS™ COURSES

IT and Web Development View Courses
Criminal Justice View Courses
Law View Courses
Business, Management and Accounting View Courses
Employability and Workforce Readiness View Courses

Return to Course Pass™ Home Page

Skilled Trades and Technology View Courses
Academic Foundations View Courses
Healthcare View Courses
Scroll to Top
Skip to content